Hosea 11–12

Footnotes

1. 1 The words “like a son” are not in the Hebrew text, but are necessary to clarify what sort of love is intended (cf. also ).
2. 2 The reads בְנִי (véni, “My son”); however, the reflects בָנָיו (vanav, “his sons”). The should be retained as original here because of internal evidence; it is much more appropriate to the context.
3. 3 The reads קָרְאוּ (qar’u, “they called”; Qal perfect 3rd person common plural from קָרַא, qara’, “to call”), cf. , ; however, the and reflect כְּקָרְאִי (kéqar’i, “as I called”; preposition ךְּ (kaf) + Qal infinitive construct from קָרַא + 1st person common singular suffix). The presence of the resumptive adverb כֵּן (ken, “even so”) in the following clause supports the alternate textual tradition reflected in the and (cf. , , , , , ).
4. 4 The reads מִפְּנֵיהֶם (mippénehem, “from them”; preposition + masculine plural noun + 3rd person masculine plural suffix), so , , ; however, the and reflect an alternate Hebrew textual tradition of מִפָּנַי הֵם (mippanay hem, “they [went away] from me”; preposition + masculine plural noun + 1st person common singular suffix, followed by 3rd person masculine plural independent personal pronoun); cf. , , . The textual variant was caused simply by faulty word division.
5. 5 Or “taught Ephraim to walk” (so , , , , ). The verb תִרְגַּלְתִּי (tirgalti, “I taught [him] to walk, I led [him]”; Tiphil perfect 1st person common singular from רָגַל, ragal, “to walk”) is an unusual verb stem: the Tiphil (properly Taphel) is attested three times in Biblical Hebrew (Hos 11:3; Jer 12:5; 22:15) and once in Biblical Aramaic (Ezra 4:7; see §55.h).
6. 6 Or “that it was I who had healed them” (, similar).
7. 7 Or “humane cords” or “cords of human kindness.” The noun אָדָם (’adam) is traditionally related to I אָדָם (“man”) and translated either literally or figuratively (as a metonymy of association for humane compassion): “cords of a man” (, margin, ), “cords of human kindness” (, ), “human ties” (), “cords of compassion” (). It is better to relate it to II אָדָם (“leather”; אָדָם), as the parallelism with II אַהֲבָה (’ahavah, “leather”) suggests (see below). This homonymic root is well attested in Arabic ’adam (“skin”) and ’adim (“tanned skin; leather”). This better fits the context of 11:4 which compares Israel to a heifer: the Lord led him with leather cords, lifted the yoke from his neck, and fed him. Elsewhere, Hosea compares Israel to a stubborn cow (4:6) and harnessed heifer (10:11).
8. 8 Or “ropes of love.” The noun אַהֲבָה (’ahava) is traditionally related to I אַהֲבָה (“love”; 13 אַהֲבָה 2). This approach is adopted by most English translations: “bands of love” (, ), “bonds of love” (), “ties of love” (), “cords of love” (). However, it is probably better to derive אַהֲבָה from the homonymic root II אַהֲבָה (“leather”; II אַהֲבָה). This root is attested in Arabic and Ugaritic. It probably occurs in the description of Solomon’s sedan chair: “upholstered with purple linen, and lined with leather” (Song 3:10). This fits the context of 11:4 which compares Israel to a young heifer: the Lord led him with leather ropes, lifted the yoke from his neck, and bent down to feed him. Elsewhere, Hosea compares Israel to a stubborn cow (4:6) and a young heifer harnessed for plowing (10:11). This is supported by the parallelism with II אָדָם (’adam, “leather”; II אָדָם). Of course, this might be an example of a homonymic wordplay on both roots: “ropes of leather/love.” For discussions of II אַהֲבָה, see G. R. Driver, “Supposed Arabisms in the Old Testament,” 55 (1936): 111; G. R. Driver, Canaanite Myths and Legends, 133; S. E. Loewenstamm, Thesaurus of the Language of the Bible, 1:39. D. Grossberg, “Canticles 3:10 in the Light of a Homeric Analogue and Biblical Poetics,” 11 (1981): 75–76. For homonymic wordplays, see W. G. E. Watson, Classical Hebrew Poetry [], ; J. Barr, Comparative Philology and the Text of the Old Testament, 151–55.
9. 9 Heb “And I was to them like those who lift a yoke.”
10. 10 Heb “their jaws” (so , , ).
11. 11 Heb “him.” This is regarded as a collective singular by most English versions and thus translated as a plural pronoun.
12. 12 Or “Will they not return to Egypt?” (so ). Following the and , the לֹא (lo’, “not”) should probably be read as לוֹ (lo, “to him”) and connected to the end of 11:4 rather than the beginning of 11:5. The textual confusion between לֹא and לוֹ probably reflects an unintentional scribal error due to a mistake in hearing (cf., e.g., Kethib/Qere in Ps 100:3).
13. 13 Heb “Assyria, he will be his [Israel’s] king” ( similar).
14. 14 Heb “return” (so , , , ). The root שׁוּב (shuv, “to turn, return”) appears at the beginning and ending of this verse, creating an inclusio. This repetition produces an ironic wordplay: because Israel refuses to “return” to God or “turn” from its sin, it will “return” to Egypt. The punishment fits the crime.
15. 15 The term תְלוּאִים (télu’im, Qal passive participle masculine plural from תָּלָא, tala’, “to hang”) literally means “[My people] are hung up” ( 1067 תָּלָא). The verb תָּלָא//תָּלָה (“to hang”) is often used in a concrete sense to describe hanging an item on a peg (Ps 137:2; Song 4:4; Isa 22:24; Ezek 15:3; 27:10) or the impaling of the body of an executed criminal (Gen 40:19, 22; 41:13; Deut 21:22, 23; Josh 8:29; 10:26; 2 Sam 21:12; Esth 2:23; 5:14; 6:4; 7:9, 10; 8:7; 9:13, 14, 25). It is used figuratively here to describe Israel’s moral inability to detach itself from apostasy. Several English versions capture the sense well: “My people are bent on turning away from me” (, ), “My people are determined to turn from me” (), “My people are determined to reject me” (; “desert me”), “My people persist in its defection from me” (), and “they insist on turning away from me” ().
16. 16 The 1st person common singular suffix on the noun מְשׁוּבָתִי (méshuvati; literally, “turning of me”) functions as an objective genitive: “turning away from me.”
17. 17 The meaning and syntax of the is enigmatic: וְאֶל־עַל יִקְרָאֻהוּ (vé’el-’al yiqra’uhu, “they call upwards to him”). Many English versions including , , , take the referent of “him” as the “most High.” The editors suggest reading וְאֶל־בַּעַל יִקְרָא וְהוּא (vé’el-ba’al yiqra’ vehu’, “they call to Baal, but he …”), connecting the 3rd person masculine singular independent personal pronoun וְהוּא (véhu’, “but he …”) with the following clause. The early Greek recensions (Aquila and Symmachus), as well as the Aramaic and the , vocalized עֹל (’ol) as “yoke” (as in 11:4): “they cry out because of [their] yoke” (a reading followed by ).
18. 18 The imperfect verbs in 11:8 function as imperfects of capability. See §34.1a.
19. 19 The phrase נֶהְפַּךְ עָלַי לִבִּי (nehpakh ’alay libbi) is an idiom that can be taken in two ways: (1) emotional sense: to describe a tumult of emotions, not just a clash of ideas, that are afflicting a person (Lam 1:20; הפך 1.c) and (2) volitional sense: to describe a decisive change of policy, that is, a reversal of sentiment from amity to hatred (Exod 14:5; Ps 105:25; 245 הָפַךְ 1; 3). The English versions alternate between these two: (1) emotional discomfort and tension over the prospect of destroying Israel: “mine heart is turned within me” (), “my heart recoils within me” (, ), “My heart is turned over within Me” (), “My heart is torn within me” (); and (2) volitional reversal of previous decision to totally destroy Israel: “I have had a change of heart” (), “my heart is changed within me” (), and “my heart will not let me do it!” (). Both 245 1.b and 3 suggest that the idiom describes a decisive change of heart (reversal of decision to totally destroy Israel once and for all) rather than emotional turbulence of God shifting back and forth between whether to destroy or spare Israel. This volitional nuance is supported by the modal function of the 1st person common singular imperfects in 11:8 (“I will not carry out my fierce anger … I will not destroy Ephraim … I will not come in wrath”) and by the prophetic announcement of future restoration in 11:10–11. Clearly, a dramatic reversal both in tone and in divine intention occurs between 11:5–11.
20. 20 The Niphal of כָּמַר (kamar) means “to grow warm, tender” ( 485 כָּמַר), as its use in a simile with the oven demonstrates (Lam 5:10). It is used several times to describe the arousal of the most tender affection (Gen 43:30; 1 Kgs 3:26; Hos 11:8; 485 1; כמר 1). Cf. “my compassion grows warm and tender.”
21. 21 The three imperfect verbs function as imperfects of capability, similar to the imperfects of capability in 11:8. See §34.1a.
22. 22 When the verb חָרַד (kharad, “to tremble”) is used with prepositions of direction, it denotes “to go or come trembling” ( 353 חָרַד 4; e.g., Gen 42:28; 1 Sam 13:7; 16:4; 21:2; Hos 11:10, 11). Thus, the phrase מִיָּם … וְיֶחֶרְדוּ (véyekherdu … miyyam) means “to come trembling from the west.” Cf. “shall come frightened from the west.”
23. 23 For the meaning of חָרַד (harad, “to tremble”) with prepositions of direction, see 11:10 above.
24. 24 Beginning with 11:12, the verse numbers through 12:14 in the English Bible differ by one from the verse numbers in the Hebrew text (), with 11:12 = 12:1 , 12:1 = 12:2 , etc., through 12:14 = 12:15 . From 13:1 to 13:16 the verse numbers in the English Bible and the Hebrew Bible are again the same.
25. 25 The phrase “has surrounded me” is not repeated in the Hebrew text here, but is implied by the parallelism in the preceding line. It is supplied in the translation for stylistic reasons, smoothness, and readability.
26. 26 The verb רוּד (rud, “to roam about freely”) is used in a concrete sense to refer to someone wandering restlessly and roaming back and forth ( 923 רוּד; Judg 11:37). Here, it is used figuratively, possibly with positive connotations, as indicated by the preposition עִם (’im, “with”), to indicate accompaniment: “but Judah still goes about with God” ( רוד). Some English versions render it positively: “Judah still walks with God” (, ); “Judah is restive under God” (); “but Judah stands firm with God” (); “but Judah yet ruleth with God” (, ). Other English versions adopt the negative connotation “to wander restlessly” and nuance עִם in an adversative sense (“against”): “Judah is still rebellious against God” (), “Judah is unruly against God” (), and “the people of Judah are still rebelling against me” ().
27. 1 Heb “a treaty” (so , ); , “a covenant”; “comes to terms.”
28. 2 The phrase “as tribute” does not appear in the Hebrew text, but is supplied in the translation for clarity. Cf. “send a gift of olive oil.”
29. 3 The noun רִיב (riv, “dispute”) is used in two contexts: (1) nonlegal contexts: (a) “dispute” between individuals (e.g., Gen 13:7; Isa 58:1; Jer 15:10) or (b) “brawl, quarrel” between people (e.g., Exod 17:7; Deut 25:1); and (2) legal contexts: (a) “lawsuit, legal process” (e.g., Exod 23:3–6; Deut 19:17; 21:5; Ezek 44:24; Ps 35:23), (b) “lawsuit, legal case” (e.g., Deut 1:12; 17:8; Prov 18:17; 25:9), and (c) God’s “lawsuit” on behalf of a person or against his own people (Hos 4:1; 12:3; Mic 6:2; רִיב). The term in Hosea refers to a covenant lawsuit in which Yahweh, the suzerain, lodges a legal case against his disobedient vassal, accusing Israel and Judah of breach of covenant which will elicit the covenant curses. Cf. “is bringing a lawsuit.”
30. 4 The verb שָׂרָה (sarah) means “to strive, contend” ( שׂרה) or “persevere, persist” ( 975 שָׂרָה; see Gen 32:29). Almost all English versions render the verb here in terms of the former: , “contended”; “strove”; , “fought against.”
31. 5 The vocalizes the consonantal text וָיָּשַׂר (vayyasar, vav consecutive + Qal preterite 3rd person masculine singular from שׂוּר, sur, “to see”); however, parallelism with שָׂרַה (sarah, “he contended”) in 12:3 suggested that it be vocalized as ויּשׂר (vav consecutive + Qal preterite 3rd person masculine singular from שׂרה [“to strive, contend”]). The latter is followed by almost all English versions here.
32. 6 Heb “him”; the referent (God) has been specified in the translation for clarity.
33. 7 For location see ; ; ; ; .
34. 8 The Leningrad Codex and the Allepo Codex both read 1st person common plural עִמָּנוּ (’immanu, “with us”). The and both reflect an alternate Hebrew of 3rd person masculine singular עִמוֹ (’imo, “with him”). The editors suggest emending the in favor of the Greek and . The internal evidence of 12:4–5 favors the 3rd person masculine singular reading. It is likely that the 1st person common plural ־נוּ reading on עִמָּנוּ arose due to a misunderstanding of the 3rd person masculine singular ־נוּ suffix on יִמְצָאֶנּוּ (yimtsa’ennu, “he found him”; Qal imperfect 3rd person masculine singular + 3rd person masculine singular suffix) which was probably misunderstood as the 1st person common plural suffix: “he found us.” Several English versions follow the and : “there he spoke with him” (, , , , , ). Others follow the : “there he spoke with us” (, , ). The Hebrew University Old Testament Project, which tends to preserve the whenever possible, adopts the reading but gives it only a “C” rating. See D. Barthélemy, e.d., Preliminary and Interim Report on the Hebrew Old Testament Text Project, 5:262–63.
35. 9 Heb “[is] his memorial name” (so ); “the name by which he is to be worshipped.”
36. 10 The verb תָשׁוּב (tashuv, Qal imperfect 2nd person masculine singular from שׁוּב, shuv, “to return”) functions as an imperfect of moral obligation, introducing the following imperatives (e.g., Gen 20:9; Exod 4:15). For this function of the imperfect, see §31.4g.
37. 11 The verb וְקַוֵּה (véqavveh, vav + Piel imperative 2nd person masculine singular from קָוָה, qavah, “to wait for”) means “to hope for, wait for, look eagerly for” ( 875 קָוָה 1; קָוָה 2.b). The Qal meaning refers to a general hope; the Piel meaning refers to hope directed toward an object, or hope inserted within a sequence of expectation and fulfillment. When the Piel is used in reference to a thing, it refers to waiting expectantly for something to occur (e.g., Gen 49:18; Isa 5:2, 4, 7; 59:9, 11; Jer 8:15; 13:16; 14:19; Ps 69:21; Job 3:9; 6:19; 11:20). When it is used in reference to God, it refers to the people of God waiting expectantly for God to do something or to fulfill his promise (e.g., Pss 25:5, 21; 27:14; 37:34; 40:2; 52:11; 130:5; Isa 8:17; 25:9; 26:8; 33:2; 51:5; 60:9; Hos 12:7). The personal object can be introduced by the preposition לְ (lamed, “for”; קָוָה 2.a) or אֶל (’el, “for”; קָוָה 2.b; e.g., Pss 27:14; 37:34; Isa 51:5; Hos 12:7). The point seems to be that if Israel will repent and practice moral righteousness, she can look to God in confident expectation that he will intervene on her behalf by relenting from judgment and restoring the covenant blessings.
38. 12 The phrase “to return to you” does not appear in the Hebrew text but is implied; it is provided in the translation for clarity. This ellipsis fills out the implicit connotations of the verb קָוָה (qavah, “to wait for”).
39. 13 Heb “the merchant … loves to cheat.” The Hebrew has singular forms (noun and verb) which are used generically to refer to all Israelite merchants and traders in general. The singular noun II כְּנַעַן (kéna’an, “a merchant; a trader”; 488 II כְּנַעַן) is used in a generic sense to refer to the merchant class of Israel as a whole (e.g., Ezek 16:29; 17:4; Zeph 1:11).
40. 14 Heb “The merchant—in his hand are scales of deceit—loves to cheat.” The present translation rearranges the Hebrew line division to produce a smoother English rendering.
41. 15 Heb “says” (so ).
42. 16 Heb “I have found wealth for myself.” The verb מָצַא (matsa’, “to find”) is repeated in 12:8 to create a wordplay that is difficult to reproduce in translation. The Israelites have “found” (מָצַא) wealth for themselves (i.e., become wealthy; v. 8a) through dishonest business practices (v. 7). Nevertheless, they claim that no guilt can be “found” (מָצַא) in anything they have done in gaining their wealth (v. 8b).
43. 17 The reads the 1st person common singular suffix on the noun יְגִיעַי (yégi’ay, “my labors/gains”; masculine plural noun + 1st person common singular suffix). The ’s οἱ πόνοι αὐτοῦ (hoi ponoi autou, “his labors”) assumes a 3rd person masculine singular suffix on the noun יְגִיעַיו (yégi’av, “his labors/gains”; masculine plural noun + 3rd person masculine singular suffix). The editors suggest adopting the reading. The textual decision is based upon whether or not this line continues the speech of Ephraim (1st person common singular suffix) or whether these are the words of the prophet (3rd person masculine singular suffix). See the following translator’s note for the two rival lexical meanings which in turn lead to the textual options for the line as a whole. Heb “In all my gains/labors.” The noun יְגִיעַ (yégi’a) has a two-fold range of meanings: (1) “toil, labor” and (2) metonymical result of toil: “product, produce, gain, acquired property” (i.e., wealth gained by labor; 388 ; ). Normally, only one of the categories of meaning is present in any usage; however, it is possible that intentional semantic ambiguity is present in this usage because the context invokes both ideas: action + wealth.
44. 18 The phrase מָצָאתִי אוֹן לִי (matsa’ti ’on li, “I have found wealth for myself” = I have become wealthy) forms a wordplay with לֹא יִמְצְאוּ לִי עָוֹן (lo’ yimtsé’u li ’avon, “they will not find guilt in me”). The repetition of מָצָא לִי (matsa’ li) is enhanced by the paronomasia between the similar sounding nouns עוֹן (’on, “guilt”) and אוֹן (’on, “wealth”). The wordplay emphasizes that Israel’s acquisition of wealth cannot be divorced from his guilt in dishonest business practices. Israel has difficulty in protesting his innocence that he is not guilty (עוֹן) of the dishonest acquisition of wealth (אוֹן).
45. 19 The reads “[in] all my gains, they will not find guilt in me which would be sin.” The reflects a Hebrew which would be translated “in all his labors, he cannot offset his guilt which is sin.” Some translations follow the : “but all his riches can never offset the guilt he has incurred” (); “None of his gains shall atone for the guilt of his sins” (); “All his gain shall not suffice him for the guilt of his sin” (). Most follow the : “In all my labours they shall find none iniquity in me that were sin” (); “In all my labors they will find in me no iniquity, which would be sin” (); “With all my wealth they will not find in me any iniquity or sin” (); “All my gains do not amount to an offense which is real guilt” (); “No one can accuse us [sic] of getting rich dishonestly” (); “I earned it all on my own, without committing a sin” (). See D. Barthélemy, e.d., Preliminary and Interim Report on the Hebrew Old Testament Text Project, 5:262–63. Heb “In all my gains/labors, no one can find in me any guilt which is sin.”
46. 20 The Lord answers Ephraim’s self-assertion (“I am rich!”) with the self-introduction formula (“I am the Lord your God!”) which introduces judgment oracles and ethical instructions.
47. 21 Or “[Ever since you came] out of Egypt”; “just as I have been since the time you were in Egypt.”
48. 22 Heb “as in the days of meeting” (כִּימֵי מוֹעֵד, kime mo’ed). This phrase might refer to “time of the festival” (e.g., Hos 2:13; 9:5; cf. , , ) or the Lord’s first “meeting” with Israel in the desert (cf. , , ). In his announcements about Israel’s future, Hosea uses “as in the days of […]” (כִּימֵי) or “as in the day of […]” (כְּיוֹם, kéyom) to introduce analogies drawn from Israel’s early history (e.g., Hos 2:5, 17; 9:9; 10:9).
49. 23 Heb “I myself multiplied vision[s]”; cf. “I gave numerous visions.”
50. 24 There is debate whether אֲדַמֶּה (’adammeh, Piel imperfect 1st person common singular) is derived from I דָמָה (damah, “similitude, parable”) or II דָמָה (“oracle of doom”). The lexicons favor the former ( 198 I דָּמָה 1; I דמה). Most translators favor “parables” (cf. , , , , ), but a few opt for “oracles of doom” (cf. , , ).
51. 25 Heb “by the hand of”; , “by the ministry of.”
52. 26 The noun אָוֶן (’aven) has a broad range of meanings which includes: (1) “wickedness, sin, injustice” (2) “deception, nothingness,” and (3) “idolatry, idolatrous cult” ( אָוֶן; 19 אָוֶן). While any of these meanings would fit the present context, the second-half of the verse refers to cultic sins, suggesting that Hosea is denouncing Gilead for its idolatry. Cf. “Gilead is filled with sinners who worship idols.”
53. 27 The introductory deictic particle אִם (’im) functions as an interrogative and introduces an interrogative clause: “Is there …?” (see אִם 5; 50 אִם 2). The assumed that אִם was being used in its more common function as a conditional particle: “If there.…”
54. 28 Heb “they”; the referent (the inhabitants of Gilead) has been specified in the translation for clarity.
55. 29 The noun שָׁוְא (shav’, “emptiness, nothing”), which describes the imminent judgment of the people of Gilead, creates a wordplay in Hebrew with the noun אָוֶן (’aven, “nothingness” = idolatry). Because Gilead worshiped “nothingness” (idols), it would become “nothing” (i.e., be destroyed).
56. 30 Heb “served” (so , , ); “earned a wife.”
57. 31 Heb “by a prophet” (so , , , ).
58. 32 Heb “he”; the referent (Israel) has been specified in the translation for clarity.
59. 33 Heb “was protected”; “was kept.” The verb שָׁמַר (shamar, “to watch, guard, keep, protect”) is repeated in 12:13–14 (12:12–13 ). This repetition creates parallels between Jacob’s sojourn in Aram and Israel’s sojourn in the wilderness. Jacob “tended = kept” (שָׁמַר) sheep in Aram, and Israel was “preserved = kept” (נִשְׁמָר, nishmar) by Moses in the wilderness.
60. 34 The noun תַּמְרוּרִים (tamrurim, “bitter things”) functions as an adverbial accusative of manner, modifying the finite verb: “He bitterly provoked Him to anger” ( §118.q). The plural form of the noun functions as a plural of intensity: “very bitterly.” For the adverbial function of the accusative, see §10.2.2e.
61. 35 Heb “He will leave his blood upon him”; “will leave upon him the guilt of his bloodshed.”
62. 36 The Hebrew term translated “Lord” here is אֲדֹנָי (’adonay).
63. 37 Heb “for his contempt” (so ); “for his insults”; “for his outrage.”