Hosea 6–7

Footnotes

1. 1 “has struck”; “struck down.”
2. 2 The Piel of חָיָה (khayah) may mean: (1) to keep/preserve persons alive from the threat of premature death (1 Kgs 20:31; Ezek 13:18; 18:27); (2) to restore the dead to physical life (Deut 32:39; 1 Sam 2:6; cf. “will put new life in us”); or (3) to restore the dying back to life from the threat of death (Ps 71:20; 311 חָיָה).
3. 3 Heb “after two days” (so , , ). The expression “after two days” is an idiom meaning “after a short time” (see, e.g., Judg 11:4; 399 יוֹם 5.a).
4. 4 Heb “on the third day” (so , , ), which parallels “after two days” and means “in a little while.” The “2–3” sequence is an example of graded numerical parallelism (Prov 30:15–16, 18–19, 21–23, 24–28, 29–31). This expresses the unrepentant overconfidence of Israel that the Lord’s discipline of Israel would be relatively short and that he would restore them quickly.
5. 5 The object (“him”) is omitted in the Hebrew text, but supplied in the translation for clarity.
6. 6 Heb “let us pursue in order to know.” The Hebrew term רָדַף (radaf, “to pursue”) is used figuratively: “to aim to secure” ( 923 רָדַף 2). It describes the pursuit of a moral goal: “Do not pervert justice … nor accept a bribe … pursue [רָדַף] justice” (Deut 16:20); “those who pursue [רָדַף] righteousness and who seek [בָּקַשׁ, baqash] the Lord” (Isa 51:1); “He who pursues [רָדַף] righteousness and love finds life, prosperity, and honor” (Prov 21:20); “Seek [בָּקַשׁ] peace and pursue [רָדַף] it” (Ps 34:15); “they slander me when I pursue [רָדַף] good” (Ps 38:21).
7. 7 The Hebrew infinitive construct with לְ (lamed) denotes purpose: “to know” (לָדַעַת, lada’at).
8. 8 The vav prefixed to וְחַסְדְּכֶם (vékhasdékhem, “your faithfulness”) functions in an explanatory sense (“For”).
9. 9 Heb “your faithfulness [so ; “your loyalty”; , , “your love”] is like a morning cloud” (וְחַסְדְּכֶם כַּעֲנַן־בֹּקֶר, vékhasdékhem ka’anan-boqer). The Hebrew poets and prophets frequently refer to the morning clouds as a simile for transitoriness (e.g., Job 7:9; Isa 44:22; Hos 6:4; 13:3; 778 עָנָן 1.c). For discussion of this phenomena in Palestine, see Chaplin, (1883): 19.
10. 10 Heb “the dew departing early” ( 1014 שָׁכַם); cf. “the dew that goes away early.” The Hiphil participle מַשְׁכִּים (mashkim) means “to depart early” (Gen 19:27; Josh 8:14; Judg 19:9). The idiom means “early morning” (1 Sam 17:16).
11. 11 The two suffix conjugation verbs חָצַבְתִּי (khatsavti, Qal perfect 1st person common singular from חָצַב, khatsav, “to cut into pieces”) and הֲרַגְתִּים (haragtim, Qal perfect 1st person common singular + 3rd person masculine plural suffix from הָרַג, harag, “to kill”) are used in reference to future-time events. These are examples of the so-called “prophetic perfect” which emphasizes the certainty of the future event (e.g., Num 24:17; Josh 10:19; Isa 8:23; 9:1). For this function of the perfect, see §30.1d. Most English versions, however, render these as past tenses.
12. 12 Heb “by the prophets” (so , ). The prophets are pictured as the executioners of Israel and Judah because they announced their imminent destruction. The prophetic word was endowed with the power of fulfillment.
13. 13 Heb “them.” The shift from the 2nd person masculine singular referents (“your” and “you”) in 6:4–5 to the 3rd person masculine plural referent (“them”) is an example of enallage, a poetic device used for emphasis.
14. 14 Heb “with the words of my mouth” (so ); “with my message of judgment and destruction.”
15. 15 The disjunctive vav prefixed to the noun (וּמִשְׁפָּטֶיךָ, umishpatekha) has an explanatory function.
16. 16 The reads וּמִשְׁפָּטֶיךָ אוֹר יֵצֵא (umishpatekha ’or yetse’, “and your judgments [are] a light [which] goes forth”) which is enigmatic and syntactically awkward (cf. , ). The reads καὶ τὸ κρίμα μου ὡς φώς (kai to krima mou hōs phos, “my judgment goes forth like light”) which reflects וּמִשְׁפָּטִי כָאוֹר יֵצֵא (umishpati kha’or yetse’, “my judgment goes forth like the light”) and posits only a simple misdivision of words. This is reflected in the and Aramaic and is followed by the present translation (so also , ). See D. Barthélemy, e.d., Preliminary and Interim Report on the Hebrew Old Testament Text Project, 5:238.
17. 17 The noun אוֹר (’or, “light”) is used here in reference to the morning light or dawn (e.g., Judg 16:2; 19:26; 1 Sam 14:36; 25:34, 36; 2 Sam 17:22; 23:4; 2 Kgs 7:9; Neh 8:3; Job 24:14; Prov 4:18; Mic 2:1; cf. , ) rather than lightning (cf. ). This continues the early morning imagery used throughout 6:2–5. In 6:3 unrepentant Israel uttered an over-confident boast that the Lord would rescue the nation from calamity as certainly as the “light of the dawn” (שַׁחַר, shakhar) “comes forth” (יֵצֵא, yetse’) every morning. Playing upon the early morning imagery, the Lord responded in 6:4 that Israel’s prerequisite repentance was as fleeting as the early morning dew. Now in 6:5, the Lord announces that he will indeed appear as certainly as the morning; however, it will not be to rescue but to punish Israel: punishment will “come forth” (יֵצֵא) like the “light of the dawn” (אוֹר).
18. 18 The phrase “I delight” does not appear in the Hebrew text a second time in this verse, but is implied from the parallelism in the preceding line.
19. 19 Contrary to popular misunderstanding, Hosea does not reject animal sacrifice nor cultic ritual, and advocate instead obedience only. Rather, God does not delight in ritual sacrifice without the accompanying prerequisite moral obedience (1 Sam 15:22; Pss 40:6–8; 51:16–17; Prov 21:3; Isa 1:11–17; Jer 7:21–23; Hos 6:6; Mic 6:6–8). However, if prerequisite moral obedience is present, he delights in sacrificial worship as an outward expression (Ps 51:19). Presented by a repentant obedient worshiper, whole burnt offerings were “an aroma pleasing” to the Lord (Lev 1:9, 13).
20. 20 Or “Like Adam”; or “Like [sinful] men.” The reads כְּאָדָם (ké’adam, “like Adam” or “as [sinful] men”); however, the editors of suggest this reflects an orthographic confusion of בְּאָדָם (bé’adam, “at Adam”), as suggested by the locative adverb שָׁם (sham, “there”) in the following line. However, שָׁם sometimes functions in a nonlocative sense similar to the deictic particle הִנֵּה (hinneh, “Behold!”). The singular noun אָדָם (’adam) has been taken in several different ways: (1) proper name: “like Adam” (כְּאָדָם), (2) collective singular: “like [sinful] men” (כְּאָדָם), (3) proper location: “at Adam,” referring to a city in the Jordan Valley (Josh 3:16), emending comparative ךְּ (kaf) to locative בְּ (bet, “at”): “at Adam” (בְּאָדָם). 9 אָדָם 2 suggests the collective sense, referring to sinful men (Num 5:6; 1 Kgs 8:46; 2 Chr 6:36; Jer 10:14; Job 31:33; Hos 6:7). The English versions are divided: margin, , margin, , , margin, “like Adam”; , , “at Adam”; “like men.”
21. 21 The verb עָבַר (’avar) refers here to breaking a covenant and carries the nuance “to overstep, transgress” ( 717 עָבַר 1.i). Cf. “violated”; “transgressed.”
22. 22 The adverb שָׁם (sham) normally functions in a locative sense meaning “there” ( 1027 שָׁם). This is how it is translated by many English versions (e.g., , , , , ). However, in poetry שָׁם sometimes functions in a nonlocative sense to introduce expressions of astonishment or when a scene is vividly visualized in the writer’s imagination (see 1027 1.a.β), or somewhat similar to the deictic particle הִנֵּה (hinneh, “Behold!”): “See [שָׁם] how the evildoers lie fallen!” (Ps 36:13); “Listen! The cry on the day of the Lord will be bitter! See [שָׁם]! The shouting of the warrior!” (Zeph 1:14); “They saw [רָאוּ, ra’u] her and were astonished … See [שָׁם] how trembling seized them!” (Ps 48:7). In some cases, it introduces emphatic statements in a manner similar to הִנֵּה (“Behold!”): “Come and see [לְכוּ וּרְאוּ, lékhu uré’u] what God has done … Behold [שָׁם], let us rejoice in him!” (Ps 66:5); “See/Behold [שָׁם]! I will make a horn grow for David” (Ps 132:17). The present translation’s use of “Oh how!” in Hos 6:7 is less visual than the Hebrew idiom שָׁם (“See! See how!”), but it more closely approximates the parallel English idiom of astonishment.
23. 23 The verb בָּגַד (bagad, “to act treacherously”) is often used in reference to faithlessness in covenant relationships ( 93 בָּגַד).
24. 24 The participle phrase פֹּעֲלֵי אָוֶן (po’ale ’aven, “workers of wickedness”) emphasizes continual (uninterrupted), habitual action. This particular use of the participle is an ironic play on the professional occupation function (see §37.2c). In effect, the major “professional guild” in Gilead is evil-working; the people are producers of evil!
25. 25 Heb “it is foot-tracked with blood”; “tracked with (+ footprints of ) blood.”
26. 26 Heb “a harvest is appointed for you also, O Judah” (similar , , , , ).
27. 27 In the verse divisions of the (Leningrad Codex and Aleppo Codex), this is the last line of 6:11. However, the and editors suggest that it belongs with the beginning of 7:1. The ancient versions (Greek, , Latin) all reflect textual traditions that connect it with 6:11. The English versions are divided: some connect it with 6:11 (, , ), while others connect it with 7:1 (, , , , ). The parallelism between this line and 7:1a favors connecting it with 7:1.
28. 1 Heb “and they do not say in their heart”; “It never enters their heads.”
29. 2 Heb “they [the sinful deeds] are before my face” (so , , ); “they are right in front of me.”
30. 3 The reads מְנָאֲפִים (ména’afim, “adulterers”; Piel participle masculine plural from נָאַף, na’af, “to commit adultery”), which does not seem to fit the context. The original reading was probably אוֹפִים (’ofim, “bakers”; Qal participle masculine plural from אָפַה, ’afah, “to bake”), which harmonizes well with the baker/oven/fire motif in 7:4–7. The textual deviation was caused by: (1) confusion of ן (nun) and ו (vav), (2) metathesis of ן/ו (nun/vav) and א (alef), and (3) dittography of ם (mem) from the preceding word. Original כֻּלָּם אוֹפִים (kullam ’ofim, “all of them are bakers”) was confused for כֻּלָּם מְנָאֲפִים (“all of them are adulterers”). In spite of this most English versions follow the reading of the here.
31. 4 The preserves the enigmatic כְּמוֹ תַנּוּר בֹּעֵרָה םֵ (kémo tannur bo’erah me, “Like a burning oven, from …?”). The adjectival participle בֹּעֵרָה (“burning”) is feminine while the noun תַנּוּר (tannur, “oven”) that it modifies is masculine. The editors solve this problem by simply redividing the words: כְּמוֹ תַנּוּר בֹּעֵר הֵם (cémo tannur bo’er hem, “they are like a burning oven”). This solution is followed by many English versions (e.g., , , ).
32. 5 Heb “the day of” (so , , , ); “On the day of the festival of our king”; “On royal holidays.”
33. 6 The preserves the awkward 1st person common plural suffix reading מַלְכֵּנוּ (malakenu, “our king”). The editors suggest reading the 3rd person masculine plural suffix מַלְכָּם (malkam, “their king”; so ), as reflected in the Aramaic .
34. 7 The vocalizes the consonants החלו as הֶחֱלוּ a Hiphil perfect 3rd person common plural from I חָלָה (“to become sick”). However, this is syntactically awkward. The editors suggest revocalizing it as Hiphil infinitive construct + 3rd person masculine singular suffix from חָלַל (khalal, “to begin”) or Hiphil perfect 3rd person common plural from חָלַל. For a discussion of this textual problem, see D. Barthélemy, e.d., Preliminary and Interim Report on the Hebrew Old Testament Text Project, 5:240. Heb “when their king began [to reign].”
35. 8 Heb “he joined hands”; “make agreements.”
36. 9 The words “like flour” are not in the Hebrew text, but are implied by the imagery.
37. 10 Heb “a cake of bread not turned.” This metaphor compares Ephraim to a ruined cake of bread that was not turned over in time to avoid being scorched and burned (see 728 עֻגָה). Cf. “as worthless as a half-baked cake.”
38. 11 Heb “foreigners consume his strength”; “devour (sap ) his strength.”
39. 12 Heb “redeem” (so , , , , ); , “save”; “I would have rescued them.”
40. 13 Heb “they do not cry out to me in their heart”; “with sincere hearts.”
41. 14 The reads יִתְגּוֹרָרוּ (yitgoraru) which is either (1) Hitpolel imperfect 3rd person masculine plural (“they assemble themselves”; so , ) from I גּוּר (gur, “to sojourn”; 157 I גּוּר) or (2) Hitpolel imperfect 3rd person masculine plural (“they excite themselves”) from II גּוּר (gur, “to stir up”; 158 II גּוּר). However, the Hebrew lexicographers suggest that both of these options are unlikely. Several other Hebrew preserve an alternate textual tradition of יִתְגּוֹדָדוּ (yitgodadu) which is a Hitpolel imperfect 3rd person common plural (“they slash themselves”) from גָּדַד (gadad, “to cut”; 151 גָּדַד), as also reflected in the (cf. “they lacerated themselves”; , “gash themselves”; “cut themselves.” This reflects the pagan Canaanite cultic practice of priests cutting themselves and draining their blood on the ground to elicit agricultural fertility by resurrecting the slain fertility god Baal from the underworld (Deut 14:1; 1 Kgs 18:28; Jer 16:6; 41:5; 47:5). Cf. which adds “in the hope that Baal will bless their crops.”
42. 15 Heb “their arms” (so , ).
43. 16 The reads the enigmatic יָשׁוּבוּ לֹא עָל (yashuvu lo’ ’al) which is taken variously: “they turn, but not upward” (); “they do not turn to the Most High” (); “they return, but not to the most High” (). The editors suggest יָשׁוּבוּ לַבַּעַל (yashuvu labba’al, “they turn to Baal”; so ) or יָשׁוּבוּ לַבְּלִיַּעַל (yashuvu labbéliyya’al, “they turn to Belial”) which is reflected by the .
44. 17 Heb “because their tongue.” The term “tongue” is used figuratively, as a metonymy of cause (tongue) for the effect (prayers to Baal).
45. 18 Heb “this [will] be for scorn in the land of Egypt”; “they will be ridiculed ( shall be mocked) in the land of Egypt.”