Ecclesiastes 10–12

Footnotes

1. 1 Heb “flies of death.” The plural form of “flies” (זְבוּבֵי, zévuve) may be taken as a plural of number (“dead flies”) or a distributive plural referring to one little fly (“one dead fly”). The singular form of the following verb and the parallelism support the latter: “one little fly … so a little folly.”
2. 2 The verb בָּאַשׁ (ba’ash) means “to cause to stink; to turn rancid; to emit a stinking odor” (e.g., Exod 16:24; Ps 38:6; Eccl 10:1); see באשׁ 1; 93 בָּאַשׁ. It is related to the noun בְּאשׁ (bé’osh, “stench”; Isa 34:3; Joel 2:20; Amos 4:10); cf. באשׁ; 93 בְּאשׁ. The verbal root נבע means “to ferment” or “to emit; to pour out; to bubble; to belch forth; to cause to gush forth” ( נבע; 615 נָבַע). The two terms יַבְאִישׁ יַבִּיעַ (yav’ish yabbia’, “to stink” and “to ferment”) create a hendiadys: a figurative expression in which two terms are used to connote one idea: “makes a rancid stench.” Several versions treat this as a hendiadys (Old Greek, Symmachus, , ); however, the treats them as separate verbs. Most translations treat these as a hendiadys: “Dead flies cause the ointment of the apothecary to send forth a stinking savor” (); “Dead flies make a perfumer’s oil stink” (); “dead flies give perfume a bad smell” (); “Dead flies make the perfumer’s ointment give off an evil odor” (); Dead flies make the perfumer’s ointment give off a foul odor” (); “Dead flies cause a perfumer’s perfume to send forth a stink” (); “Dead flies make the perfumer’s ointment give off a foul odor” (). Others render both separately: “Dead flies make the perfumer’s sweet ointment rancid and ferment” (); “Dead flies turn the perfumer’s ointment fetid and putrid” ().
3. 3 Heb “carries more weight than”; or “is more precious than.” The adjective יָקָר (yaqar) denotes “precious; valuable; costly” ( יָקָר 2) or “weighty; influential” ( 430 יָקָר 4). The related verb denotes “to carry weight,” that is, to be influential ( יָקָר 2). The idea is not that a little folly is more valuable than much wisdom; but that a little folly can have more influence than great wisdom. It only takes one little mistake to ruin a life of great wisdom. The English versions understand it this way: “so a little foolishness is weightier than wisdom and honor” (); “so a little folly outweighs massive wisdom” (); “so a little folly outweighs an abundance of wisdom” (); “so a little folly outweighs wisdom and honor” (, , ); “so can a little folly make wisdom lose its worth” (); “so a little folly annuls great wisdom” (); “a single slip can ruin much that is good” (); “so doth a little folly him that is in reputation for wisdom and honor” (). The rendered the line rather freely: τιμιον ὀλιγον σοφιἀ ὑπερ δοξαν ἀφροσυνης μεγαλην (“a little wisdom is more precious than great glory of folly”). This does not accurately represent the Hebrew syntax. Qoheleth creates a wordplay by using two Hebrew words for social honor or influence: “weighty” = honorable (יָקָר, yaqar) and “heavy” = honor (כָּבוֹד, cavod).
4. 4 The reads מֵחָכְמָה מִכָּבוֹד (mekhokhmah mikkavod, “more than wisdom, more than honor”), but several medieval Hebrew read וּמִכָּבוֹד מֵחָכְמָה (mekhokhmah umikkavod, “more than wisdom and honor”). However the textual problem is resolved, the two nouns form a hendiadys: two terms joined by vav that describe one concept. The first noun retains its full nominal sense, while the second functions adjectivally: “heavy wisdom” or better, “great wisdom.”
5. 5 Heb “a wise man’s heart is at his right hand.” The phrase “right hand” is a Hebrew idiom for the place of protection (e.g., Pss 16:8; 110:5; 121:5). In ancient warfare, the shield of the warrior on one’s right-hand side protected one’s right hand. Qoheleth’s point is that wisdom provides protection (e.g., Eccl 7:12).
6. 6 Heb “and the heart of a fool is at his left hand.” The fool lacks the protection of wisdom which is at the right-hand side of the wise man (see note on “right hand” in the previous line). The wise man’s heart (i.e., good sense) protects him, but the fool is always getting into trouble.
7. 7 Heb “he lacks his heart.”
8. 8 Heb “he tells everyone.”
9. 9 A fool’s lack of wisdom is obvious to everyone, even when he is engaged in the simple, ordinary actions of life.
10. 10 Heb “spirit.”
11. 11 Heb “rises up.”
12. 12 Heb “Do not leave.”
13. 13 Heb “your place.” The term מָקוֹם (maqom, “place”) denotes a position, post or office (1 Kgs 20:24; Eccl 8:3; 10:4; 879 מָקוֹם 1.c).
14. 14 The noun II מַרְפֵּא (marpe’, “calmness”) is used in reference to keeping one’s composure with a peaceful heart (Prov 14:30) and responding to criticism with a gentle tongue (Prov 15:4); cf. II מַרְפֵּא. It is used in reference to keeping one’s composure in an emotionally charged situation ( 951 מַרְפֵּא 2). The term “calmness” is used here as a metonymy of association, meaning “calm response.”
15. 15 The term “response” does not appear in the Hebrew text, but is supplied in the translation for clarification (see preceding note on the word “calm”).
16. 16 The verbal root נוח means “to leave behind; to leave untouched” ( I נוח 2) in general, and in this passage, “to undo” or “to allay” offenses ( I נוח 3; 629 נוּחַ 5) or “to avoid” offenses ( 629 נוּחַ 5). The point is either that (1) a composed response can calm or appease the anger of the ruler, or (2) a calm heart will help one avoid great sins that would offend the king. The root נוח (“to rest”) is repeated, creating a wordplay: “Do not leave” (אַל־תַּנַּח, ’al-tannakh) and “to avoid; to allay” (יַנִּיחַ, yanniakh). Rather than resigning (i.e., leaving), composure can appease a king (i.e., cause the anger of the king to leave).
17. 17 The term “another” does not appear in the Hebrew text, but is supplied in the translation to indicate that this is not the first “misfortune” described by the Teacher. See 5:13, 16; 6:1–2.
18. 18 Heb “an evil.”
19. 19 Heb “under the sun.”
20. 20 Heb “like an error that comes forth from the presence of a ruler.”
21. 21 Heb “folly.”
22. 22 Heb “high places.”
23. 23 Or “servants,” so , , , (also in the following line).
24. 24 Heb “upon the earth.”
25. 25 The four imperfect verbs in vv. 8–9 may be nuanced as indicatives (“will …”) or in a modal sense denoting possibility (“may …”). The rendered them with indicatives, as do many English translations (, , , , , , ). However, it is better to take them in a modal sense (, , , , , , ). One who digs a pit does not necessarily fall into it, but he may under the right conditions.
26. 26 Heb “a serpent will bite him.” The clause “he who breaks through a wall” (וּפֹרֵץ גָּדֵר, uforets gader) is a nominative absolute—the casus pendens is picked up by the resumptive pronoun in the following clause “a serpent will bite him” (יִשְּׁכֶנּוּ נָחָשׁ, yishékhennu nakhash). This construction is used for rhetorical emphasis (see §4.7c).
27. 27 The term “ax head” does not appear in the Hebrew text, but is supplied in the translation for clarity. The preceding noun “iron” functions as a metonymy of material (i.e., iron) for the object with which it is associated (i.e., ax head).
28. 28 Heb “he”; the referent (the workman) is implied, and has been specified in the translation for clarity
29. 29 The verb קלל in the Pilpel means “to sharpen; to make a blade sharp” ( קלל 1). This denominative verb is derived from the rare noun II קָלַל “smooth; shiny” (referring to bronze; Ezek 1:7; Dan 10:6; ). Sharpening the blade or head of a bronze ax will make it smooth and shiny. It is not derived from I קָלַל (qalal) “to treat light” or the noun I קְלָלָה (qélalah) “curse.” Nor is it related to I קָלַל “to shake” (Ezek 21:26); cf. . 886 קָלַל 2 erroneously relates it to I קָלַל, suggesting “to whet” or “to move quickly to and fro.”
30. 30 Heb “face.”
31. 31 Heb “strength.” The term וַחֲיָלִים (vakhayalim, conjunction + plural noun from חַיִל, khayil, “strength; efficiency”) is an example of a plural of intensification ( §124.e). The point is that it is a waste of a great deal of strength and energy. If a person is not smart, he will have to use a lot of energy and waste his efficiency.
32. 32 Heb “without charming.”
33. 33 Heb “the master of the tongue.”
34. 34 Heb “has no profit”; , , “there is no advantage.”
35. 35 Heb “of a wise man’s mouth.”
36. 36 The phrase “win him” does not appear in the Hebrew text, but has been supplied in the translation for clarity.
37. 37 Or “are gracious.” The antithetical parallelism suggests that חֵן (khen) does not denote “gracious character” but “[gain] favor” (e.g., Gen 39:21; Exod 3:21; 11:3; 12:36; Prov 3:4, 34; 13:15; 22:1; 28:23; Eccl 9:11); cf. חֵן 2; 336 חֵן 2. The , on the other hand, rendered חֶן with χάρις (charis, “gracious”). The English versions are divided: “are gracious” (, , , , ) and “win him favor” (, , , , , , ).
38. 38 Heb “lips.”
39. 39 Heb “consume him”; or “engulf him.” The verb I בלע (“to swallow”) creates a striking wordplay on the homonymic root II בלע (“to speak eloquently”; בלע). Rather than speaking eloquently (II בלע, “to speak eloquently”), the fool utters words that are self-destructive (I בלע, “to swallow, engulf”).
40. 40 Heb “the words of his mouth.”
41. 41 The terms “beginning” and “end” form a merism, a figure of speech in which two opposites are contrasted to indicate totality (e.g., Deut 6:7; Ps 139:8; Eccl 3:2–8). The words of a fool are madness from “start to finish.”
42. 42 Heb “his mouth.”
43. 43 Heb “madness of evil.”
44. 44 Heb “and the fool multiplies words.” This line is best taken as the third line of a tricola encompassing 10:13–14a (, , , ) rather than the first line of a tricola encompassing 10:14 (, , , , , ). Several versions capture the sense of this line well: “a fool prates on and on” () and “Yet the fool talks and talks!” ().
45. 45 Heb “after him”; or “after he [dies].”
46. 46 The plural form of הַכְּסִילִים (hakkésilim, from כְּסִיל, késil, “fool”) denotes (1) plural of number: referring to several fools or (2) plural of habitual character or plural of intensity (referring to a single person characterized by a habitual or intense quality of foolishness). The latter is favored because the two verbs in 10:15 are both singular in form: “wearies him” (תְּיַגְּעֶנּוּ, téyaggé’ennu) and “he does [not] know” (לֹא־יָדַע, lo’-yada’); see §135.p. The article on הַכְּסִילִים is used in the generic sense.
47. 47 This line may be interpreted in one of three ways: (1) “the labor of fools wearies him because he did not know enough to go to a town,” referring to the labor of the peasants who had not been able to find a place in town where life was easier; (2) “the labor of the fools so wearies everyone of them (singular pronoun taken in a distributive sense) so much that he even does not know how to go to town,” that is, he does not even know how to do the easiest thing in the world; (3) “let the labor of fools so weary him that he may not even know how to go to town,” taking the verb as a jussive, describing the foolish man described in 10:12–14. See D. Barthélemy, e.d., Preliminary and Interim Report on the Hebrew Old Testament Text Project, 3:592–93.
48. 48 Heb “he does not know to go to the city.”
49. 49 Or “a child”; or “a servant.” The term נַעַר (na’ar) has a wide range of meanings ( נַעַר; 654–55 II נַעַר). Used in reference to age, it may refer to an infant (Exod 2:6; Judg 13:5; 1 Sam 1:22; 4:21; 2 Sam 12:16), a child just weaned (1 Sam 1:24), an adolescent in puberty (1 Sam 16:11), or a young man of marriageable age (Gen 34:19; 2 Sam 14:21; 18:5, 12). Its technical or titular use denotes “servant” (Num 22:22; Judg 7:10–11; 19:3; 1 Sam 3:9; 2 Sam 16:1; 2 Kgs 4:12, 25; 19:6), “retainer; attendant; follower” (Gen 14:24; 1 Sam 25:5; 2 Sam 2:14; 2 Kgs 19:6; Isa 37:6; Job 1:15–17; Neh 4:10, 17) and “soldier” (1 Kgs 20:15–16). The parallel Ugaritic term is used in reference to physical age (lad; son; youth) and in a technical sense (guild members; servitors; soldiers); see 19.445. The rendered it with νεώτερος (neōteros, “youthful”). The English versions vary: “child,” (, , , , , margin, margin); “childish” ( margin); “servant” or “slave” (, , margin, , ); and “lackey” (). When used in reference to rulers, it emphasizes incompetence, naiveté, inexperience, and immaturity (Isa 3:4, 9; 1 Kgs 3:7). This use must be understood in the light of the parallel antonym: “son of freemen” (בֶּן־חוֹרִים, ben-khorim). This suggests “servant,” that is, one who was not well trained and prepared by noble birth to ascend to the throne.
50. 50 Heb “son of nobles”; or “son of freemen.” The term חוֹרִים (khorim) is from חֹר (khor, “noble one; freeman”); cf. I חֹר; 359 I חֹר. It is related to the Aramaic noun חֲרַר (kharar, “freeman”); Sabean חר (“freeman; noble”); Old South Arabic חר and Arabic hurr (“freedom”); cf. חֹר; 359 חֹר.
51. 51 The noun עֵת (’et, “point in time”) has a basic two-fold range of meanings: (1) “time of an event” and (2) “time for an event” ( 773 עֵת). The latter has four sub-categories: (a) “usual time,” (b) “the proper, suitable or appropriate time,” (c) “the appointed time,” and (d) “uncertain time.” Here it connotes “a proper, suitable time for an event” ( עֵת 6; 773 עֵת 2.b). Examples of this use include: “it was the time for rain” (Ezra 10:13); “a time of judgment for the nations” (Ezek 30:3); “there is an appropriate time for every occasion” (Eccl 3:1); “the rain in its season” (Deut 11:14; Jer 5:24); “the time for the harvest” (Hos 2:11; Ps 1:3); “food in its season” (Ps 104:27); “the right moment” (Eccl 8:5); cf. עֵת 6.
52. 52 Heb “for strength and not for drunkenness”; or “as heroes and not as drunkards”; or “for nourishment and not for drunkenness.” According to גְבוּרה 1.d the term גְבוּרָה (gévurah, “strength”) may here connote “self-control.” This tactic is adopted by a few English versions: “with self-control, and not as drunkards” () and “with restraint, not with guzzling” (). On the other hand, most English versions render בִּגְבוּרָה וְלֹא בַשְּׁתִי (bigvurah vélo’ vashéti) in a woodenly literal sense, “for strength and not for drunkenness” (, , , , , , ). However, a few attempt to express the idiom clearly: “as stalwarts and not as drunkards” (); “stalwart men, not sots” (); “for vigor and not in drinking bouts” (); “for refreshment, and not for riotousness” ().
53. 53 Or “the rafters sink.”
54. 54 Heb “lowering of hands.”
55. 55 Heb “bread.” The term לֶחֶם (lekhem) is used literally of “bread” and figuratively (i.e., by metonymy) for a “feast” ( 536–37 לֶחֶם). suggests that עֹשִׂיה לֶחֶם (’osih lekhem) in Eccl 10:19 means “make a feast” ( 537 לֶחֶם 1.a). This obscure line has occasioned numerous proposals: “a feast is made for laughter” (, , ); “feasts are made for laughter” (); “men feast for merrymaking” (); “men prepare a meal for enjoyment” (); “the table has its pleasures” (); “they [i.e., rulers of v. 16] make a banquet for revelry” (); “people prepare a banquet for enjoyment” (); “for laughter they make bread and wine, that the living may feast” (); “bread is made for laughter” (); “bread [and oil] call forth merriment” ().
56. 56 The subject of the verb is not specified. When active verbs have an unspecified subject, they are often used in a passive sense: “Bread [feasts] are made.…”
57. 57 Heb “and wine gladdens life.”
58. 58 Or “and [they think that] money is the answer for everything.”
59. 59 Perhaps the referent is people who are in authority because of their wealth.
60. 60 Heb “in chambers of your bedroom.”
61. 61 Heb “a bird of the air.”
62. 62 Heb “might carry the voice.” The article is used here with the force of a possessive pronoun.
63. 63 The Hebrew phrase בַּעַל הַכְּנָפַיִם (ba’al hakkénafayim, “possessor of wings”) is an idiom for a winged creature, that is, a bird (e.g., Prov 1:17; see בַּעַל A.6; 127 בַּעַל 5.a). The term בַּעַל (“master; possessor”) is the construct governing the attributive genitive הַכְּנָפַיִם (“wings”); see §9.5.3b.
64. 64 The term “your” does not appear in the Hebrew text, but is supplied in the translation for smoothness.
65. 65 Heb “tell the matter.”
66. 1 The verb שָׁלַח (shalakh, “to send; to cast”) refers to the action of sending something to someone (e.g., Neh 8:12; שׁלח). The term is traditionally rendered here as “cast” (, , RES, , , ); however, some render it “send” (, , ). uses ἀπόστειλον (aposteilon, “send”).
67. 2 Heb “your bread.” The term לֶחֶם (lekhem) is traditionally rendered “bread” (, , , , , , , ). However, 11:1–2 seems to deal with exporting goods overseas (D. R. Glenn, “Ecclesiastes,” , ). It is better to take לֶחֶם (“bread”) as a metonymy of product, standing for the grain and wheat from which bread is produced (e.g., Gen 41:54–55; 47:13, 15, 17, 19; 49:20; Num 15:19; 2 Kgs 18:32; Isa 28:28; 30:23; 36:17; 55:10; Jer 5:17; Ezek 48:18; Job 28:5; Ps 104:14; Prov 28:3); see 1; 537 1.b. It is taken this way by several translations: “grain” () and “goods” (). Qoheleth encouraged the export of grain products overseas in international trade.
68. 3 Heb “upon the surface of the waters.” This is traditionally viewed as extolling generosity from which a reward will be reaped. On the other hand, some scholars suggest that the imagery deals with commercial business through maritime trade. M. Jastrow took this verse as advice to take risks in business by trusting one’s goods or ships that will after many days return with a profit (A. Cohen, The Five Megilloth [], 181). Sea trade was risky in the ancient Near East, but it brought big returns to its investors (e.g., 1 Kgs 9:26–28; 10:22; Ps 107:23); see D. R. Glenn, “Ecclesiastes,” , . The verse is rendered thus: “Send your grain across the seas, and in time you will get a return” (); or “Trust your goods far and wide at sea, till you get a good return after a while” ().
69. 4 Heb “find it.”
70. 5 Heb “give a portion.”
71. 6 The phrase “seven or eight” is a graded numerical saying depicting an indefinite plurality: “The collocation of a numeral with the next above it is a rhetorical device employed in numerical sayings to express a number, which need not, or cannot, be more exactly specified. It must be gathered from the context whether such formulae are intended to denote only an insignificant number (e.g., Is 17:6 “two” or at the most “three”) or a considerable number (e.g., Mi 5:4). Sometimes, however, this juxtaposition serves to express merely an indefinite total, without the collateral idea of intensifying the lower by means of the higher number” ( §134.s). Examples: “one” or “two” (Deut 32:30; Jer 3:14; Job 33:14; 40:5; Ps 62:12); “two” or “three” (2 Kgs 9:32; Isa 17:6; Hos 6:2; Amos 4:8; Sir 23:16; 26:28; 50:25); “three” or “four” (Jer 36:23; Amos 1:3–11; Prov 21:19; 30:15, 18; Sir 26:5); “four” or “five” (Isa 17:6); “six” or “seven” (Job 5:19; Prov 6:16); “seven” or “eight” (Mic 5:4; Eccl 11:2).
72. 7 The word “investments” is not in the Hebrew text; it is added here for clarity. This line is traditionally understood as an exhortation to be generous to a multitude of people (, , , , , , , ); however, it is better taken as shrewd advice to not commit all one’s possessions to a single venture (A. Cohen, The Five Megilloth [], 181). D. R. Glenn (“Ecclesiastes,” , ) writes: “In view of the possibility of disaster, a person should make prudent investments in numerous ventures rather than put all his ‘eggs in one basket’ (e.g., Gen 32:7–8 for a practical example of this advice).” Several translations reflect this: “Divide your merchandise among seven ventures, eight maybe” (); “Take shares in several ventures” ().
73. 8 The phrase you do not know is repeated throughout this section (11:2, 5–6). Human beings are ignorant of the future. This should motivate a person to invest their financial resources wisely (11:1–3) and to work diligently (11:4–6).
74. 9 The term רעה (lit. “evil”) refers to calamity (e.g., Eccl 5:13; 7:14; 9:12).
75. 10 This proverb criticizes those who are overly cautious. The farmer who waits for the most opportune moment to plant when there is no wind to blow away the seed, and to reap when there is no rain to ruin a ripe harvest, will never do anything but sit around waiting for the right moment.
76. 11 Heb “what is the way of the wind.” Some take these words with what follows: “how the spirit comes to the bones in the womb of a pregnant woman.” There is debate whether הָרוּחַ מַה־דֶּרֶךְ (mah-derekh haruakh) refers to the wind (“the path of the wind”) or the human spirit of a child in the mother’s womb (“how the spirit comes”). The understood it as the wind: “the way of the wind” (ἡ ὁδὸς τοῦ πνεύματος, hē hodos tou pneumatos); however, the and take it as the human spirit. The English versions are divided: (1) spirit: “the way of the spirit” (, , ); “the breath of life” (); “how a pregnant woman comes to have … a living spirit in her womb” (); “how the lifebreath passes into the limbs within the womb of the pregnant woman” (); “how the spirit comes to the bones in the womb of a woman with child” (); “how the breath comes to the bones in the mother’s womb” (); and (2) wind: “the way of the wind” (, margin); “the path of the wind” (, ); and “how the wind blows” (, ).
77. 12 The term “form” does not appear in the Hebrew text, but is supplied in the translation for clarity and smoothness.
78. 13 Heb “the one who is full.” The feminine adjective מְלֵאָה (méle’ah, from מָלֵא, male’, “full”) is used as a substantive referring to a pregnant woman whose womb is filled with her infant ( מָלֵא 2; 571 מָלֵא). This term is used in reference to a pregnant woman in later Hebrew ( מָלֵא). The understood the term in this sense: κυοφορούσης (kuophorousēs, “pregnant woman”).
79. 14 Heb “do not let your hand rest.” The Hebrew phrase “do not let your hand rest” is an idiom that means “do not stop working” or “do not be idle” (e.g., Eccl 7:18); cf. 628 נוּחַ B.1. Several English versions capture the sense of the idiom well: “do not stop working” (); “do not be idle” (); “let not your hand be idle” (); “let not your hands be idle” (); “stay not your hand” (). The term “hand” is a synecdoche of part (i.e., do not let your hand rest) for the whole person (i.e., do not allow yourself to stop working).
80. 15 The terms “morning” (בֹּקֶר, boqer) and “evening” (עֶרֶב, ’erev) form a merism (a figure of speech using two polar extremes to include everything in between) that connotes “from morning until evening.” The point is not that the farmer should plant at two times in the day (morning and evening), but that he should plant all day long (from morning until evening). This merism is reflected in several translations: “in the morning … until evening” (, ).
81. 16 The term “activity” does not appear in the Hebrew text, but is supplied in the translation for clarity and smoothness.
82. 17 The verb כָּשֵׁר (kasher, “to prosper”) is used metonymically to denote “will succeed.” In 11:10, it means “skill in work.”
83. 18 Or “together.”
84. 19 The term “light” (הָאוֹר, ha’or) is used figuratively (metonymy of association) in reference to “life” (e.g., Job 3:20; 33:30; Ps 56:14). By contrast, death is described as “darkness” (e.g., Eccl 11:8; 12:6–7).
85. 20 The Hebrew term מָתוֹק (matoq, “sweet”) is often used elsewhere in reference to honey. The point is that life is sweet and should be savored like honey.
86. 21 Heb “to the eyes.” The term “eyes” is a synecdoche of part (i.e., eyes) for the whole person. Used with the idiom “to see the sun” (i.e., to be alive), Qoheleth is simply saying that the experience of a life is a pleasant thing that should be savored.
87. 22 The idiom “to see the sun” (both רָאָה הָשָּׁמֶשׁ, ra’ah hashamesh, and חָזָה הַשָּׁמֶשׁ, khazah hashamesh) is an idiom meaning “to be alive” (e.g., Ps 58:9; Eccl 6:5; 7:11; 11:7); cf. 1039 שֶׁמֶשׁ 4.b. The opposite idiom, “the sun is darkened,” refers to the onset of old age and death (Eccl 12:2).
88. 23 The phrase “the days of darkness” refers to the onset of old age (Eccl 12:1–5) and the inevitable experience of death (Eccl 11:7–8; 12:6–7). Elsewhere, “darkness” is a figure of speech (metonymy of association) for death (Job 10:21–22; 17:13; 18:18).
89. 24 The term הֶבֶל (hevel) here means “obscure,” that is, unknown. This sense is derived from the literal concept of breath, vapor or wind that cannot be seen; thus, the idea of “obscure; dark; difficult to understand; enigmatic” (see I הֶבֶל; 210–11 I הֶבֶל). It is used in this sense in reference to enigmas in life (6:2; 8:10, 14) and the future which is obscure (11:8).
90. 25 Heb “in your youth”; or “in your childhood.”
91. 26 Heb “walk in the ways of your heart.”
92. 27 Heb “the sight.”
93. 28 Heb “and know that concerning all these God will bring you into judgment.” The point is not that following one’s impulses and desires is inherently bad and will bring condemnation from God. Rather the point seems to be: As you follow your impulses and desires, realize that all you think and do will eventually be evaluated by God. So one must seek joy within the boundaries of God’s moral standards.
94. 29 The verb סוּר (sur, “to remove”) normally depicts a concrete action of removing a physical object from someone’s presence ( סור 1). Here, it is used figuratively (hypocatastasis) of the emotional/psychological action of banishing unnecessary emotional stress from one’s mind. The Hiphil usage means “to remove; to abolish; to keep away; to turn away; to push aside” ( 1). The English versions render this term in a variety of ways, none of which is very poetic: “remove” (, , , ); “turn aside” (); “ward off” (); and “banish” (, , , , , ).
95. 30 The root “vexation” (כַּעַס, ka’as) has a broad range of meanings: “anger” (Deut 4:25; 9:18), “irritation” (Deut 32:21), “offend” (2 Kgs 23:26; Neh 3:37), “vexation” or “frustration” (Ezek 20:28), “grief” (1 Sam 1:6), and “worry” (Ps 112:10; Eccl 7:9); cf. כַּעַס. Here, it refers in general to unnecessary emotional stress and anxiety that can deprive a person of the legitimate enjoyment of life and its temporal benefits.
96. 31 Heb “your heart.”
97. 32 In light of the parallelism, רָעָה (ra’ah) does not refer to ethical evil, but to physical injury, pain, deprivation or suffering (e.g., Deut 31:17, 21; 32:23; 1 Sam 10:19; Neh 1:3; 2:17; Pss 34:20; 40:13; 88:4; 107:26; Eccl 12:1; Jer 2:27; Lam 3:38); see רָעָה 4.b; 949 רָעָה 2. This sense is best captured as “pain” (, , , , ) or “the troubles [of your body]” (, ), rather than “evil” (, , , ) or “sorrow” ().
98. 33 Heb “your flesh.”
99. 34 Or “childhood.”
100. 35 Or “youth”; Heb “black hair” or “the dawn [of life].” The feminine noun הַשַּׁחֲרוּת (hashakharut) is a , occurring only here. There is debate whether it is from שָׁחֹר (shakhor) which means “black” (i.e. black hair, e.g., Lev 13:31, 37; Song 5:11; שׁחר; 1007 שָׁחֹר and שָׁחַר) or שַׁחַר (shakhar) which means “dawn” (e.g., Gen 19:15; Job 3:9; Song 6:10; שָׁחַר). If this term is from שָׁחֹר it is used in contrast to gray hair that characterizes old age (e.g., Prov 16:31; 20:29). This would be a figure (metonymy of association) for youthfulness. On the other hand, if the term is from שַׁחַר it connotes the “dawn of life” or “prime of life.” This would be a figure (hypocatastasis) for youthfulness. In either case, the term is a figure for “youth” or “prime of life,” as the parallel term הַיַּלְדוּת (hayyaldut, “youth” or “childhood”) indicates. The term is rendered variously in the English versions: “black hair” (); “the dawn of youth” (); “the dawn of life” (, , , ); “the prime of life” (, ); “vigor” (); “youth” (); and “manhood” (). The plural forms of הַשַּׁחֲרוּת and הַיַּלְדוּת are examples of the plural of state or condition that a person experiences for a temporary period of time, e.g., זְקֻנִים (zéqunim, “old age”); נְעוּרִים (né’urim, “youth”); and עֲלוּמִים (’alumim, “youthfulness”); see §7.4.2b.
101. 36 The term הֶבֶל (hevel, “vanity”) often connotes the temporal idea “fleeting” (e.g., Prov 31:30; Eccl 3:19; 6:12; 7:15; 9:9). This nuance is suggested here by the collocation of “youth” (הַיַּלְדוּת, hayyaldut) and “the prime of life” (הַשַּׁחֲרוּת, hashakharut).
102. 1 The imperative זְכֹר (zekhor, “Remember!”) is a figurative expression (metonymy of association) for obeying God and acknowledging his lordship over one’s life (e.g., Num 15:40; Deut 8:18; Pss 42:6–7; 63:6–8; 78:42; 103:18; 106:7; 119:52, 55; Jer 51:50; Ezek 20:43; Jonah 2:7; Mal 4:4). The exhortation to fear God and obey his commands in 12:13–14 spells out what it means to “remember” God.
103. 2 The temporal adjective עַד (’ad, “before”) appears three times in 12:1–7 (vv. 1b, 2a, 6a). Likewise, the temporal preposition בְּ (bet, “when”) is repeated (vv. 3a, 4b). These seven verses comprise one long sentence in Hebrew: The main clause is 12:1a (“Remember your Creator in the days of your youth”), while 12:1b–7 consists of five subordinate temporal clauses (“before … before … when … when … before …”).
104. 3 The adjective רָעָה (ra’ah, “evil”) does not refer here to ethical evil, but to physical difficulty, injury, pain, deprivation and suffering (e.g., Deut 31:17, 21; 32:23; 1 Sam 10:19; Neh 1:3; 2:17; Pss 34:20; 40:13; 88:4; 107:26; Eccl 11:10; Jer 2:27; Lam 3:38); see רָעָה 4.b; 949 רָעָה 2.
105. 4 Heb “the light and the moon and the stars.” The phrase “the light and the moon” is a hendiadys (two separate terms denoting one idea) or perhaps even a hendiatris (three separate terms denoting one idea) for “the light of the moon and stars” (e.g., Gen 1:14).
106. 5 The verb שׁוּב (shuv, “to return”) here denotes “to desist” ( שׁוּב 3). It pictures the disappearance of the clouds as a result of the precipitation of their contents.
107. 6 Heb “the watchers of the house.”
108. 7 The verb זְוּעַ (zéua’, “to tremble”) probably does not refer to physical tremors but to trembling in fear (e.g., Esth 5:9; Hab 2:7; Sir 48:12); cf. זוע). At the onset of old age, those who had been the most courageous during their youth suddenly become fearful.
109. 8 The verb עָוַת (’avat, “to bend; to stoop”) means “to be stooped” ( עות) rather than “to bend themselves” ( 736 עות). The perfect tense may be taken in an ingressive sense (“begin to stoop over”).
110. 9 The term הַטֹּחֲנוֹת (hattokhanot, Qal active participle feminine plural from טָחַן, takhan, “to grind”) is a double entendre. In its literal sense, it refers to female mill-grinders; in its figurative sense, it refers to molar teeth ( *טֹחֲנָה). The related Hebrew noun טַחֲנָה (takhanah) refers to a “mill,” and the related Arabic noun tahinat means “molar tooth” ( *טַחֲנָה).
111. 10 The verb חָשַׁךְ (khashakh, “to grow dim”) is used elsewhere in reference to failing eyesight (e.g., Ps 69:24; Lam 5:17); see חשׁך 2. Therefore, the phrase “those who look through the windows” is probably a figurative description of the eyes, picturing failing eyesight at the onset of old age.
112. 11 The noun טַחֲנָה (takhanah) refers to a “grinding-mill” where grain is ground into flour ( טַחֲנָה). The term is here used as a double entendre, figuratively describing the loss of one’s teeth at the onset of old age. The figurative usage also draws upon the polysemantic nature of this noun; the related Arabic root tahinat means “molar tooth” ( *טֹחֲנָה).
113. 12 Heb “rises up.” The verb קוּם (qum, “to arise”) refers to being awakened from sleep in the middle of the night by a sound (e.g., Exod 12:30; 1 Sam 3:6, 8) and waking up early in the morning (e.g., Gen 24:54; Judg 16:3; Ruth 3:14; Neh 2:12; Job 14:12; 24:14); see קוּם 1; 877 קוּם 1.a. Here it describes one of the frustrations of old age: the elderly person is unable to get a full night’s sleep because every little sound awakens him in the middle of the night or too early in the morning.
114. 13 The term “their” does not appear in the Hebrew text, but is supplied in the translation for clarity and smoothness.
115. 14 Heb “all the daughters of song.” The expression “the daughters of song” (בְּנוֹת הַשִּׁיר, bénot hashir) is an idiom for “songs; musical sounds; melodious notes” ( I בַּת 2; 123 בַּת 5; §128.v). The genitive הַשִּׁיר (“song”) represents the nature, quality, character or condition of the construct בְּנוֹת (“daughters”); see §9.5.3b. The idiom refers to the musical songs sung during one’s youth or to the ability to hear songs that are sung. This line is lamenting the loss of hearing which occurs at the onset of old age.
116. 15 Heb “are brought low.”
117. 16 The Hebrew noun חַתְחַתִּים (khatkhattim) literally means “terrors” ( חַתְחַת; 369 חַתְחַת). Here it is used as a metonymy (cause for effect) to refer to dangers that cause the elderly to be fearful of going outside or walking along the streets. The form חַתְחַתִּים is a reduplicated noun stem from the root חתת (“terror”); חַתְחַת; 369 חַתְחַת. The reduplication of the noun stem intensifies its meaning: the noun חִתַּת (khittat) means “terror,” so the intensified reduplicated form חַתְחַת (khatkhat) connotes something like “great terror” (see S. Moscati, Comparative Grammar, 78–79, §12.9–13). The plural form חַתְחַתִּים (“great terrors”) denotes plural of number (more than one) or plural of intensity (which would further intensify the experience of fear); see §7.4.3a.
118. 17 The noun שָׁקֵד (shaqed) is used in the OT in reference to the “almond nut” (e.g., Gen 43:11; Num 17:23) and metonymically (product for thing producing it) for the “almond tree” (e.g., Jer 1:11); cf. שָׁקֵד; 1052 שָׁקֵד 2.
119. 18 The verb נצץ (“to blossom”) is a geminate verb (II = III) that, in this case, is written with a matres lectionis (plene spelling) rather than the normal spelling of וינץ ( §73.g). The Hiphil verb יָנֵאץ (yane’ts) is from the root נצץ “to shine; to sparkle; to blossom” ( נצץ; 665 נָצַץ). It is used in reference to almond blossoms whose color progresses from pink to white as they ripen (e.g., Song 6:11). This is an appropriate metaphor (comparison of sight) to describe white hair that often accompanies the onset of old age.
120. 19 Or “locust.”
121. 20 The verb סָבַל (saval, “to bear a heavy load”) means “to drag oneself along” as a burden ( 687 סָבַל) or “to become thick; to move slowly forward; to clear off” ( סבל).
122. 21 The noun אֲבִיּוֹנָה (’aviyyonah, “caper berry, caper fruit”) is a , occurring only here in the Hebrew Bible. It refers to the Capparis spinosa fruit which was eaten as an aphrodisiac in the ancient Near East ( אֲבִיּוֹנָה; 2–3 אֲבִיּוֹנָה). There are two options for the interpretation of this figure: (1) At the onset of old age, the sexual virility that marked one’s youth is nothing more than a distant memory, and even aphrodisiacs fail to stimulate sexual desire to allow for sexual intercourse. (2) The onset of old age is like the shriveling up of the caper berry fruit; the once virile youth has passed his prime just like a shriveled caper berry can no longer provide a sexual stimulant.
123. 22 The vocalizes consonantal ותפר as וְתָפֵר (vétafer, conjunction + Hiphil imperfect 3rd person feminine singular from פָּרַר, parar, “to burst”). However, an alternate vocalization tradition of וְתֻפַּר (vétupar, conjunction + Hophal imperfect 3rd person feminine singular “to be broken down”) is reflected in the which reads καὶ διασκεδασθῇ (kai diaskedasthē, “is scattered”) and Symmachus καὶ διαλυθῇ (kai dialuthē, “is broken up”) which is followed by the . On the other hand, Aquila’s καὶ καρπεύσει (kai karpeusei, “are enjoyed,” of fruits) reflects וְתִפְרֶה (Qal imperfect 3rd person feminine singular from פָרַה, “to bear fruit”); this does not reflect an alternate reading but a translator’s error in word division between וְתָפֵר הָאֲבִיּוֹנָה (vétafer ha’aviyyonah, “the caper berry bursts”) and וְתִפְרֶה אֲבִיּוֹנָה (vétifreh ’aviyyonah, “the caper berry bears fruit”). Or “fails”; or “bursts.” The meaning of the verb פָּרַר (parar, “to break; to make ineffectual”) is debated: (1) “to be ineffectual,” that is, to fail to provide sexual power as an aphrodisiac, or (2) “to break; to burst,” that is, the caper berry fruit shrivels as it lingers on its branch beyond its period of ripeness ( פרר 2.f; 830 I. פָּרַר 2.d).
124. 23 In the construct phrase בֵּית עוֹלָמוֹ (bet ’olamo, “house of his eternity”), the genitive עוֹלָמוֹ (“eternity”) functions as an attributive adjective: “his eternal home.” This is an idiom for the grave as the resting place of the body (e.g., Ps 49:12 [11]; Job 7:9; 14:10–12; Eccl 12:5) or Sheol as the residence of the dead (e.g., Job 17:13; 30:23); see I בַּיִת 2; (5); 109 בַּיִת 1.d. For example, the term בֵּית (“house”) is used in Job 30:23 in parallelism with “death” (מָוֶת, mavet). The same idiom appears in postbiblical Hebrew: “the house of eternity” (בֵּית עוֹלָם, bet ’olam) is a euphemism for a burial ground or cemetery (e.g., Lamentations Rabbah 1:5); see 1084–85 עָלַם III. This idiom is also found in a Moabite text in reference to the grave (Deir Alla Inscription 2:6). A similar idiom is found in Phoenician and Palmyrene in reference to the grave ( 35). The idiom appears to have originated in Egyptian literature (H. A. Hoffner, 2:113). See F. Cumont, Afterlife in Roman Paganism, 48–50.
125. 24 Heb “water-spring.”
126. 25 The term גַּלְגַּל (galgal, “wheel”) refers to the “water wheel” or “paddle wheel” for drawing water from a well ( I גַּלְגַּל 2; 165 גַּלְגַּל 1.b). This Hebrew noun is related to the Akkadian term gulgullu (“pot”), as well as Phoenician (?) גלגל (“wheel for drawing water”). The Latin term girgillus (“lever for the bucket”) is a late derivation from this term. See G. Dalman, Arbeit und Sitte in Palästina, 2:225–28.
127. 26 Or “spirit.” The likely referent is the life’s breath that originates with God. See Eccl 3:19, as well as Gen 2:7; 6:17; 7:22.
128. 27 Heb “futility of futilities.” The phrase “absolutely futile” (הֲבֶל הֲבָלִים, havel havalim) is a superlative genitive construction ( §133.i). See note on “futile” at .
129. 28 Elsewhere in the book, the author is identified with the anarthrous term קֹהֶלֶת (qohelet, Eccl 1:1, 2, 12; 7:27; 12:9, 10); however, in 12:8 it is used with the article, indicating that it is a professional title rather than a personal surname: הַקּוֹהֶלֶת (haqqohelet, “the Teacher”). Numerous English translations render קֹהֶלֶת as a professional title: “the Speaker” (, ); “the Preacher” (, , , , , ); “the Teacher” (, ); “the Leader of the Assembly” ( margin); “the Assembler” ( margin). Others render it as a personal surname: “Koheleth” (, ) and “Qoheleth” (, margin).
130. 29 Heb “Everything.” The term is rendered “all of these things” for clarity. Although כֹּל (kol, “everything; all”) is often used in an absolute or comprehensive sense ( 481 כֹּל 1), it is frequently used as a synecdoche of the general for the specific, that is, its sense is limited contextually to the topic at hand ( 482 2). This is particularly true of הַכֹּל (hakkol, 482 2.b) in which the article particularizes or limits the referent to the contextual or previously mentioned topic (e.g., Gen 16:12; 24:1; Exod 29:24; Lev 1:9, 13; 8:27; Deut 2:36; Josh 11:19 [see 2 Sam 19:31; 1 Kgs 14:26 = 2 Chr 12:9]; 21:43; 1 Sam 30:19; 2 Sam 17:3; 23:5; 24:23; 1 Kgs 6:18; 2 Kgs 24:16; Isa 29:11; 65:8; Jer 13:7, 10; Ezek 7:14; Pss 14:3; 49:18; 1 Chr 7:5; 28:19; 29:19; 2 Chr 28:6; 29:28; 31:5; 35:7; 36:17–18; Ezra 1:11; 2:42; 8:34–35; 10:17; Eccl 5:8). Thus, “all” does not always mean “all” absolutely or universally in comprehension. In several cases the context limits its reference to two classes of objects/issues being discussed, so הַכֹּל means “both” (e.g., 2:14; 3:19: 9:1, 2). Thus, הַכֹּל (“all; everything”) refers only to what Qoheleth characterizes as “futile” (הֶבֶל, hevel) in the context. This does not mean that everything is futile. For example, fearing God is not “futile” (2:26; 3:14–15; 11:9–10; 12:1, 9, 13–14). Only those objects/issues that are contextually placed under כֹּל are designated as “futile” (הֶבֶל).
131. 30 The term הֶבֶל (hevel, “futile”) is repeated three times within the six words of this verse for emphasis. See footnote on “futile” at . Absolutely futile!… All of these things are futile! This motto is the theme of the book. Its occurs at the beginning (1:2) and end of the book (12:8), forming an envelope structure (inclusio). Everything described in 1:2–12:8 is the supporting proof of the thesis of 1:2. With few exceptions (e.g., 2:24–26; 3:14–15; 11:9–12:1, 9), everything described in 1:2–12:8 is characterized as “futile” (הֶבֶל, hevel).
132. 31 Eccl 12:9–12 fits the pattern of a concluding colophon that draws from a conventional stock of ancient Near Eastern scribal practices and vocabulary. See M. A. Fishbane, Biblical Interpretation, 29–31.
133. 32 Heb “he weighed and studied.” The verbs וְאִזֵּן וְחִקֵּר (vé’izzen vekhiqqer, “he weighed and he explored”) form a hendiadys (a figurative expression in which two separate terms used in combination to convey a single idea): “he studiously weighed” or “carefully evaluated.” The verb וְאִזֵּן (conjunction + Piel perfect 3rd person masculine singular from II אָזַן (’azan) “to weigh; to balance”) is related to the noun מֹאזֵן (mo’zen) “balances; scales” used for weighing money or commercial items (e.g., Jer 32:10; Ezek 5:1). This is the only use of the verb in the OT. In this context, it means “to weigh” = “to test; to prove” ( 24 מאזן) or “to balance” ( II אָזַן). Cohen suggests, “He made an examination of the large number of proverbial sayings which had been composed, testing their truth and worth, to select those which he considered deserving of circulation” (A. Cohen, The Five Megilloth [], 189).
134. 33 The verb תָּקַן (taqan, “to make straight”) connotes “to put straight” or “to arrange in order” ( תקן; 1075 תָּקַן). This may refer to Qoheleth’s activity in compiling a collection of wisdom sayings in an orderly manner, or writing the wisdom sayings in a straightforward, direct manner.
135. 34 In the construct phrase דִּבְרֵי־חֵפֶץ (divre-khefets, “words of delight”) the noun חֵפֶץ (“delight”) functions as an attributive genitive (“delightful words”) or a genitive of estimation or worth (“words viewed as delightful by Qoheleth” or “words that he took delight in”). For another example of a genitive of estimation of worth, see זִבְחֵי אֱלֹהִים (zivkhe ’elohim) “sacrifices of God” = “sacrifices viewed as acceptable to God” (Ps 51:19). In other words, Qoheleth wrote his proverbs so effectively that he was able to take moral and aesthetic delight in his words.
136. 35 The consonantal form וכתוב has been revocalized in three ways: (1) The Masoretes read וְכָתוּב (vékhatuv, conjunction + Qal passive participle from כָּתַב, katav, “to write”): “Qoheleth sought to find pleasant words, what was written uprightly, namely, words of truth.” This is supported by the ’s καὶ γεγραμμένον (kai gegrammenon, conjunction + masculine accusative singular perfect passive participle from γράφω, graphō, “to write). (2) The editors suggest the vocalization וְכָתוֹב (vékhatov, conjunction + Qal infinitive absolute). The infinitive וְכָתוֹב (“and to write”) in the B-line would parallel the infinitive of purpose לִמְצֹא (limtso’, “to find”) in the A-line: “Qoheleth sought to find pleasant words, and to write accurately words of truth.” (3) Several medieval Hebrew preserve an alternate textual tradition of וְכָתַב (vékhatav, conjunction + Qal perfect 3rd person masculine singular). This is reflected in the Greek versions (Aquila and Symmachus), and . The major English versions are divided among these three textual options: (1) וְכָתוּב (Qal passive participle): “and that which was written was upright, even words of truth” (); “and that which was written uprightly, even words of truth” (); “and, written by the upright, words of truth” (); “but what he wrote was the honest truth” (); “and what he wrote was upright and true” (). (2) וְכָתוֹב (Qal infinitive absolute): “and to write words of truth correctly” (); “and to write correctly the reliable words of truth” (); “and to write down true sayings with precision” (). (3) וְכָתַב (Qal perfect 3rd person masculine singular): “and uprightly he wrote words of truth” (); “and he wrote words of truth plainly” (); “even as he put down plainly what was true” (); “and he wrote words most right, and full of truth” (); and “and he recorded genuinely truthful sayings” (). The editors of the Jerusalem Hebrew Bible project favor וְכָתוֹב “and to write” (option 2): see D. Barthélemy, e.d., Preliminary and Interim Report on the Hebrew Old Testament Text Project, 3:596–97.
137. 36 The construct phrase דִּבְרֵי אֱמֶת (divre ’emet, “words of truth”) is a genitive of content (“words containing truth”) or an attributive genitive (“truthful words”). Depending upon the vocalization of וכתוב, the phrase functions in one of two ways: (1) as direct object of וְכָתוֹב יֹשֶׁר (vékhatov yosher) “and he accurately wrote truthful words”; or (2) in apposition to וְכָתוּב יֹשֶׁר (vékhatuv yosher) “and what is written uprightly, namely, truthful words.”
138. 37 Or “goads”; “sharp sticks used to guide animals.” For further information see M. A. Fishbane, Biblical Interpretation, 29–32.
139. 38 The exhortation may be understood in two ways: (1) to avoid any so-called wisdom sayings beyond those mentioned in vv. 10–11: “The words of the wise … are given from one shepherd. And of anything beyond these, my son, be warned!” (see , , , , ). This is paraphrased well by : “My son, avoid anything beyond the scriptures of wisdom” (). (2) The exhortation refers to the concerns of v. 12b, namely, diligent study is wearisome, i.e., “Furthermore, my son, be warned: there is no end to the making of books, and much study is wearisome to the body” (see , , , ).
140. 39 The verb עָשָׂה (’asah, “to do”) may mean “to make” ( I עשׂה 3) or “to acquire” ( I עשׂה 6). The rendered it as ποιῆσαι (poiēsai, “making”), as do most English versions: “making” (, , , , , , , , ). However, several English versions reflect a different nuance: “there is no end to the buying of books” (); “the use of books is endless” (); and “the writing of many books is endless” ().
141. 40 Heb “the flesh.” The term בָּשָׂר (basar, “flesh”) refers to the body, functioning as a synecdoche or part (i.e., flesh, skin) for the whole (i.e., body), e.g., Gen 17:13; Ps 16:9; Prov 14:30 (see E. W. Bullinger, Figures of Speech, ).
142. 41 Heb “The end of the matter, everything having been heard.”
143. 42 Heb “This is all men”; or “This is the whole of man.” The phrase זֶה כָּל־הָאָדָם (zeh kol-ha’adam, “this is all men”) features rhetorical elision of a key word. The ambiguity over the elided word has led to no less than five basic approaches: (1) “this is the whole duty of man” (, , , , ); (2) “this is the duty of all men” (, margin, margin); (3) “this applies to all men” (, ); (4) “this is the whole duty of all men” (, ); and (5) “there is no more to man than this” (). The four-fold repetition of כֹּל (kol, “all”) in 12:13–14 suggests that Qoheleth is emphasizing the “bottom line,” that is, the basic duty of man is simply to fear and obey God: After “all” (כֹּל) has been heard in the book, his conclusion is that the “whole” (כֹּל) duty of man is to obey God because God will bring “all” (כֹּל) acts into judgment, including “all” (כֹּל) that is hidden, whether good or bad. See D. Barthélemy, e.d., Preliminary and Interim Report on the Hebrew Old Testament Text Project, 3:596.
144. 43 Heb “will bring every deed into judgment.”