Hosea 4–6

Footnotes

1. 1 Heb “sons of Israel” (so ); “children of Israel”; , “people of Israel.”
2. 2 The noun רִיב (riv, “dispute, lawsuit”) is used in two contexts: (1) nonlegal contexts: (a) “dispute” between individuals (e.g., Gen 13:7; Isa 58:1; Jer 15:10) or (b) “brawl; quarrel” between people (e.g., Exod 17:7; Deut 25:1); and (2) legal contexts: (a) “lawsuit; legal process” (e.g., Exod 23:3–6; Deut 19:17; 21:5; Ezek 44:24; Ps 35:23), (b) “lawsuit; legal case” (e.g., Deut 1:12; 17:8; Prov 18:17; 25:9), and (c) God’s “lawsuit” on behalf of a person or against his own people (Hos 4:1; 12:3; Mic 6:2; רִיב). The term in Hosea refers to a covenant lawsuit in which Yahweh the suzerain lodges a legal case against his disobedient vassal, accusing Israel and Judah of breach of covenant which will elicit the covenant curses.
3. 3 Heb “with the inhabitants of the land” (so ); , , “against the inhabitants of the land.”
4. 4 Heb “there is no truthfulness nor loyalty nor knowledge of God in the land.” Here “knowledge of God” refers to recognition of his authority and obedience to his will.
5. 5 Heb “they break out and bloodshed touches bloodshed.” The Hebrew term פָּרַץ (parats, “to break out”) refers to violent and wicked actions ( 829 פָּרַץ 7; פרץ 6.c). It is used elsewhere in a concrete sense to describe breaking through physical barriers. Here it is used figuratively to describe breaking moral barriers and restraints (cf. “Crimes increase, and there is one murder after another”).
6. 6 Or “languish” (so , ); “waste away.”
7. 7 Heb “the beasts of the field” (so , ).
8. 8 Or “Let no one contend or accuse.”
9. 9 The reads וְעַמְּךָ כִּמְרִיבֵי כֹהֵן (vé’ammékha kimrive khohen): “And your people [are] like those who contend against the priest.” This is reflected in the and the versions; however, it is syntactically awkward and makes little sense in context. Several textual critics suggest emending the text to read וְעִמְּךָ רִיבִי כֹהֵן (vé’immékha rivi khohen): “My contention is with/against you, O priest!” This involves (1) the revocalization of עַמְּךָ (“your people”) to עִמְּךָ (“with/against you”) and (2) positing dittography (a letter written twice instead of once) of ךְּ (kaf) between original וְעַמְּךָ רִיבִי to create וְעַמְּךָ כִּרִיבִי (). The editors suggest that the is corrupt and should be emended. However, the editors of the Hebrew Old Testament Text Project retain the reading with a “B” rating. Likewise, the English translations are split: (1) “for thy people are as they that strive with the priest”; “for your people are like those who contend with the priest”; “for your people are like those who bring charges against a priest”; (2) “for with you is my contention, O priest”; “for this your people has a grievance against [you], O priest!”; “my complaint is against you priests”; “My case is against you, the priests!” The singular noun כֹּהֵן (cohen, “priest”) may be understood as a singular of number (so , , ), referring to a singular individual (perhaps the high priest); however, it is more likely that it functions as a collective singular, referring to the priesthood as a whole (e.g., 4:7–10, so , , , , ). Collective singular forms alternate with plural forms throughout the oracle against the priests in 4:4–10.
10. 10 The reads וְדָמִיתִי אִמֶּךָ (védamiti ’immekha, “and I will destroy your mother”), and is followed by most English versions; however, the text should probably be emended to וְדָמִית עַמֶּךָ (védamit ’ammekha, “and you have destroyed your own people”). The 2nd person masculine singular form וְדָמִית (védamit, “and you have destroyed”) is preserved in several medieval Hebrew and reflected in Jerome’s . For discussion in favor of the reading, see D. Barthélemy, e.d., Preliminary and Interim Report on the Hebrew Old Testament Text Project, 5:232. Or “and I will destroy your mother” (so , ).
11. 11 Heb “they have destroyed” or “my people are destroyed” (so , , ).
12. 12 Heb “Because you reject knowledge”; “because they don’t know me.”
13. 13 Heb “have forgotten”; , “have ignored.”
14. 14 Heb “forget” (so , ); “forget to bless.”
15. 15 The reads אָמִיר (’amir, “I will change, exchange”; Hiphil imperfect 1st person common singular from מוּר, mur, “to change, exchange”). However, an alternate scribal tradition (tiqquneh sopherim, that is, an intentional scribal change when the Masoretes believed that the received consonantal reading was corrupt) preserves the reading הֵמִירוּ (hemiru, “they have exchanged”; Hiphil perfect 3rd person common plural from מוּר). This alternate scribal tradition is also found in the and reflected in the . Several translations follow the : , , “I will change their glory into shame” and “I will turn your honor into disgrace”; however, others adopt the alternate tradition: “they changed their glory into shame” and “they exchanged their Glory for something disgraceful.” For discussion in favor of the reading, see D. Barthélemy, e.d., Preliminary and Interim Report on the Hebrew Old Testament Text Project, 5:232.
16. 16 Heb “And it shall be, like people, like priest” (so ); “The priests shall fare no better than the people.”
17. 17 Heb “by guarding harlotry.” The present translation assumes that the first word of v. 11 in the Hebrew text is to be taken with the infinitive at the end of v. 10 (so also , , , ).
18. 18 Heb “take away the heart of my people.” The present translation assumes that the first word of v. 12 in the Hebrew text is to be construed with the noun at the end of v. 11 (so also , , ).
19. 19 Heb “adultery.” The adjective “spiritual” is supplied in the translation to clarify that apostasy is meant here.
20. 20 The phrase “they sacrifice” is not repeated in the Hebrew text here but is implied by parallelism; it is provided in the translation for the sake of clarity.
21. 21 The words “it is true” are supplied in the translation to indicate that this is a conclusion drawn on the preceding behavior. Cf. “So must a people”; “thus a people”; “As the proverb says, ‘A people.’ ”
22. 22 Beth Aven means “house of wickedness” in Hebrew; it is a polemic reference to “Bethel,” which means “house of God.” Cf. “at sinful Bethel.”
23. 23 The Hebrew verb “has rebelled” (סָרַר, sarar) can also mean “to be stubborn.” This is the same root used in the simile: “like a stubborn (סֹרֵרָה, sorerah) heifer.” The similarity between Israel and a stubborn heifer is emphasized by the repetition of the same term.
24. 24 The particle עַתָּה (’attah) often refers to the imminent or the impending future: “very soon” ( 774 עַתָּה 1.b). In Hosea it normally introduces imminent judgment (Hos 2:12; 4:16; 5:7; 8:8, 13; 10:2).
25. 25 Or “How can the Lord feed them like a lamb in a meadow?” The syntax of this line is difficult and has been understood in two ways: (1) a declarative statement as an announcement of judgment ( 774 עַתָּה 1.b): “Now the Lord will feed them like a lamb in the broad field” (cf. , , , ) or (2) as a rhetorical question lamenting the uncooperative spirit of Israel: “How can the Lord feed them like a lamb in a meadow?”; cf. , , , , ), designed to produce a negative answer (“He cannot feed them …!”). However, this statement lacks an explicit interrogative marker. Although Hosea occasionally asks a rhetorical question without an explicit interrogative marker (e.g., 10:9; 13:14a), he normally does use a rhetorical particle to introduce rhetorical questions (e.g., 6:4; 8:5; 9:5, 14; 11:8; 13:9–10, 14b). Elsewhere, Hosea uses the introductory temporal adverb עַתָּה (“soon”) to introduce announcements of imminent future judgment (2:12; 4:16; 5:7; 8:8, 13; 10:2) and accusations of sin (5:3; 13:2). Although Israel has been as rebellious as a stubborn heifer, the Lord will indeed gain control of Israel: they will be like lambs (weakened and defeated) when he puts them out to pasture in a broad field (exile).
26. 26 Heb “their altars” (so , ) or “their sacrifices” (so , , ). Here זִבְחוֹתָם (zivkhotam, “altars; sacrifices”) is a metonymy of association for Israel’s apostate idolatrous Baal worship.
27. 1 Heb “O house of Israel” (so , , ); “all of Israel’s leaders.”
28. 2 Heb “Use the ear”; “give ear.”
29. 3 Heb “O house of the king” (so ); “O royal house.”
30. 4 Heb “for the judgment is to you”; or “For this accusation is against you.” Cf. “This judgment is against you.”
31. 5 The noun פַּח (pakh, “trap”) is used (1) literally of a bird-trap, used in similes and metaphors (Amos 3:5; Prov 7:23; Eccl 9:12), and (2) figuratively to refer to (a) calamities and plots (Job 18:9; 22:10; Pss 91:3; 119:110; 124:7; 140:6; 141:9; 142:4; Prov 22:5; Isa 24:17–18; Jer 18:22; 48:43–44; Hos 9:8) and (b) a source of calamity (Josh 23:13; Pss 11:6; 69:23; Isa 8:14; Hos 5:1; 809 פַּח).
32. 6 Heb “you were a trap to Mizpah.”
33. 7 The noun רֶשֶׁת (reshet, “net”) is used (1) literally of a net used to catch birds (Prov 1:17) and (2) in figurative descriptions of the wicked plotting to ensnare their victims (Prov 29:5; Pss 9:16; 10:9; 25:15; 31:5; 35:7; 57:7; 140:6; Job 18:8; 440 רֶשֶׁת).
34. 8 Heb “and a net spread out over Tabor.”
35. 9 The reads וְשַׁחֲטָה שֵׂטִים הֶעְמִיקוּ (véshakhatah setim he’miqu): “and rebels have made deep the slaughter.” The editors propose ושַׁחַת הַשִּׁטִּים הֶעְמִיקוּ (véshakhat hashittim he’miqu): “they have made the pit of Shittim [place of idolatry] deep” (cf. , , ; see 1006 שַׁחֲטָּה). This involves: (1) phonological confusion between the similar sounding consonants ת (tav) and ט (tet), (2) redivision of words to take ה (hey) as the article with הַשִּׁטִּים rather than feminine noun ending of וְשַׁחֲטָה, and (3) revocalization of הַשִּׁטִּים with the two daghesh fortes. Retaining the reading of the is preferable here. Heb “and those who revolt have gone deep into slaughter” (similar , ); “deep in depravity.”
36. 10 Heb “but I am discipline to all of them”; “but I am a rebuker of them all.”
37. 11 The phrase “all too well” does not appear in the Hebrew text, but is supplied in the translation for clarity and stylistic reasons.
38. 12 The phrase “the evil of” does not appear in the Hebrew text here, but is implied by the metonymical (cause-effect) use of the term “Israel.” It is supplied in the translation for the sake of clarity. Cf. “what they have done is not hidden from me.”
39. 13 Or “Israel has become corrupt”; “has made itself unclean”; “are unfit to worship me.”
40. 14 Heb “a spirit of harlotries”; “a spirit of prostitution”; “Idolatry has a powerful hold on them.” However, takes this literally: “your constant craving for sex keeps you from knowing me.”
41. 15 Heb “is in their heart” (so ); , “is within them.”
42. 16 Heb “will stumble” (so , ). The verb כָּשַׁל (kashal, “to stumble; to stagger; to totter”) is used figuratively to describe distress (Isa 59:10; Ps 107:12), the debilitating effects of misfortune and calamity (Isa 5:27), and toil in exile (Lam 5:13). It is often used figuratively to describe the overthrow of a people or nation through divine judgment (Isa 8:15; Jer 6:21; 50:32; Hos 4:5; 5:5; 14:2). The Niphal stem used here is also frequently used in reference to divine judgment: “be overthrown,” of nations, armies (Jer 6:15; 8:12; Dan 11:19, 33, 34, 41; 505 כָּשַׁל 1.b). This figurative use of כָּשַׁל is often used in collocation with נָפַל (nafal, “to fall”; Isa 3:8; 31:3; 8:15; Jer 6:15; Dan 11:19).
43. 17 Or “in” (so , , ).
44. 18 Heb “will stumble” (so ). The term כָּשַׁל (kashal) appeared in the preceding line (Niphal “be overthrown”) and now appears here (Qal “will stumble”). The repetition of כָּשַׁל emphasizes that a similar fate will befall Judah because it failed to learn its lesson from God’s judgment on Israel. The verb כָּשַׁל (“to stumble”) does not describe the moral stumbling of Judah, but the effect of God’s judgment (Isa 8:15; Jer 6:21; 50:32; Hos 4:5; 5:5; 14:2), and the toil of exile (Lam 5:13).
45. 19 The terms flocks and herds are used figuratively for animal sacrifices (metonymy of association). Hosea describes the futility of seeking God’s favor with mere ritual sacrifice without the prerequisite moral obedience (e.g., 1 Sam 15:24; Ps 50:6–8; 51:17–18; Isa 1:12; Mic 6:6–8).
46. 20 Heb “they go out to seek the Lord”; “to worship the Lord”; “to offer sacrifices to the Lord.”
47. 21 Heb “the Lord”; the phrase “the favor of” does not appear in Hebrew here, but is supplied for the sake of clarity. It is implied by the metonymical (cause-effect) reference to the Lord, the source of favor and forgiveness.
48. 22 Heb “dealt treacherously against” (so , ); “dealt faithlessly”; “betrayed the honor of.”
49. 23 The particle עַתָּה (’attah) often refers to the imminent or the impending future: “very soon” ( 774 עַתָּה 1.b). In Hosea it normally introduces imminent judgment (Hos 2:12; 4:16; 5:7; 8:8, 13; 10:2).
50. 24 See the note on the place name Beth Aven in .
51. 25 The reads the anomalous אַחֲרֶיךָ בִּנְיָמִין (’akharekha binyamin, “behind you, O Benjamin”), a reading followed by many English versions. The reads ἐξέστη (exestē) which might reflect an alternate textual tradition of הַחֲרִדוּ בִּנְיָמִין (hakharidu binyamin, “Tremble in fear, O Benjamin”); the verb form would be a Hiphil imperative 2nd person masculine plural from חָרַד (kharad, “to tremble, be terrified”; 353 חָרַד). For discussion of this textual problem, see D. Barthélemy, e.d., Preliminary and Interim Report on the Hebrew Old Testament Text Project, 5:236.
52. 26 Heb “day of rebuke” (so , ); , , , “day of punishment.”
53. 27 The verb הוֹדַעְתִּי (hoda’ti, Hiphil perfect 1st person common singular from יָדַע, yada’; Qal “to know,” Hiphil “to make known, declare”) here functions as (1) an instantaneous perfect, representing an action being performed at the same instant that the speaker utters the statement (e.g., Gen 14:22; Deut 8:19; 26:3; 2 Sam 17:11; 19:30; Ps 143:6); or (2) an epistolary perfect, representing a situation in past time from the viewpoint of the recipient of the message but in present time from the viewpoint of the writer (e.g., 1 Kgs 15:19; 2 Chr 2:12). For functions of the perfect tense (suffix-conjugation), see §30.5.1.
54. 28 The substantival use of the Niphal participle נֶאֱמָנָה (ne’emanah, “that which is sure”) refers to an event that will occur in the future ( 52 אָמַן 2).
55. 29 Heb “like water” (so , , ); “like a waterfall.” The term מַיִם (mayim, “water”) often refers to literal flood waters (Gen 7:7, 10; 8:3, 7–9; Isa 54:9) and figuratively describes the Lord’s judgment that totally destroys the wicked ( 566 מַי 4.k).
56. 30 The verb עָשַׁק (’ashaq, “to oppress”) may refer to (1) oppressing the poor and defenseless ( 798 עָשַׁק 1), or more likely to (2) oppression of one nation by another as the judgment of God (Deut 28:29, 33; 1 Chr 16:21; Pss 105:14; 119:121, 122; Isa 52:4; Jer 50:33; Hos 5:11; 798 2). The Qal passive participles עָשׁוּק (’ashuq, “oppressed”) and רְצוּץ (rétsuts, “crushed”) might refer to a present situation (so , , , , ); however, the context suggests that they refer to a future situation (so ). When a participle is used in reference to the future, it often denotes an imminent future situation and may be rendered, “about to” (e.g., Gen 6:17; 15:14; 20:3; 37:30; 41:25; 49:29; Exod 9:17–18; Deut 28:31; 1 Sam 3:11; 1 Kgs 2:2; 20:22; 2 Kgs 7:2). For functions of the participle, see §37.6f.
57. 31 The term רְצוּץ (rétsuts, “crushed”) is a metaphor for weakness (e.g., 2 Kgs 18:21; Isa 36:6; 42:3) and oppression (e.g., Deut 28:33; 1 Sam 12:3, 4; Amos 4:1; Isa 58:6). Here it is used as a figure to describe the devastating effects of the Lord’s judgment.
58. 32 Heb “crushed of judgment” (רְצוּץ מִשְׁפָּט, rétsuts mishpat). The second term is a genitive of cause (“crushed because of judgment” or “crushed under judgment”) rather than respect (“crushed in judgment,” as in many English versions).
59. 33 The meaning of the Hebrew term translated “worthless idols” is uncertain; cf. “the commandment”; “man’s command”; “filth”; “vanity.”
60. 34 The noun רָקָב (raqav, “rottenness, decay”) refers to wood rot caused by the ravages of worms ( 955 רָקָב); cf. “dry rot.” The related noun רִקָּבוֹן (riqqavon) refers to “rotten wood” (Job 41:27).
61. 35 Hosea employs three preterites (vayyiqtol forms) in verse 13a–b to describe a past-time situation.
62. 36 Heb “went to” (so , , ); “asked help from.”
63. 37 Heb “sent to” (so , , ).
64. 38 The reads מֶלֶךְ יָרֵב (melekh yarev, “a contentious king”). This is translated as a proper name (“king Jareb”) by , , . However, the stative adjective יָרֵב (“contentious”) is somewhat awkward. The words should be redivided as an archaic genitive-construct מַלְכִּי רָב (malki rav, “great king”; cf. , , , ) which preserves the old genitive hireq yod ending. This is the equivalent of the Assyrian royal epithet sarru rabbu (“the great king”). See also the note on the same phrase in .
65. 39 Heb “your wound will not depart from you.” Hosea personifies Ephraim’s “wound” as if it could depart from the sickly Ephraim (see the formal equivalent rendering in the preceding ). Ephraim’s sinful action in relying upon an Assyrian treaty for protection will not dispense with its problems.
66. 40 The verb יֶאְשְׁמוּ (ye’shému, Qal imperfect 3rd person masculine plural from אָשַׁם, ’asham, “to be guilty”) means “to bear their punishment” (Ps 34:21–22; Prov 30:10; Isa 24:6; Jer 2:3; Hos 5:15; 10:2; 14:1; Zech 11:5; Ezek 6:6; 79 אָשַׁם 3). Many English versions translate this as “admit their guilt” (, ) or “acknowledge their guilt” (, ), but cf. “pay for their guilt” and “have suffered enough for their sins.”
67. 41 Heb “seek my face” (so , , , ); “seek my presence.”
68. 1 “has struck”; “struck down.”
69. 2 The Piel of חָיָה (khayah) may mean: (1) to keep/preserve persons alive from the threat of premature death (1 Kgs 20:31; Ezek 13:18; 18:27); (2) to restore the dead to physical life (Deut 32:39; 1 Sam 2:6; cf. “will put new life in us”); or (3) to restore the dying back to life from the threat of death (Ps 71:20; 311 חָיָה).
70. 3 Heb “after two days” (so , , ). The expression “after two days” is an idiom meaning “after a short time” (see, e.g., Judg 11:4; 399 יוֹם 5.a).
71. 4 Heb “on the third day” (so , , ), which parallels “after two days” and means “in a little while.” The “2–3” sequence is an example of graded numerical parallelism (Prov 30:15–16, 18–19, 21–23, 24–28, 29–31). This expresses the unrepentant overconfidence of Israel that the Lord’s discipline of Israel would be relatively short and that he would restore them quickly.
72. 5 The object (“him”) is omitted in the Hebrew text, but supplied in the translation for clarity.
73. 6 Heb “let us pursue in order to know.” The Hebrew term רָדַף (radaf, “to pursue”) is used figuratively: “to aim to secure” ( 923 רָדַף 2). It describes the pursuit of a moral goal: “Do not pervert justice … nor accept a bribe … pursue [רָדַף] justice” (Deut 16:20); “those who pursue [רָדַף] righteousness and who seek [בָּקַשׁ, baqash] the Lord” (Isa 51:1); “He who pursues [רָדַף] righteousness and love finds life, prosperity, and honor” (Prov 21:20); “Seek [בָּקַשׁ] peace and pursue [רָדַף] it” (Ps 34:15); “they slander me when I pursue [רָדַף] good” (Ps 38:21).
74. 7 The Hebrew infinitive construct with לְ (lamed) denotes purpose: “to know” (לָדַעַת, lada’at).
75. 8 The vav prefixed to וְחַסְדְּכֶם (vékhasdékhem, “your faithfulness”) functions in an explanatory sense (“For”).
76. 9 Heb “your faithfulness [so ; “your loyalty”; , , “your love”] is like a morning cloud” (וְחַסְדְּכֶם כַּעֲנַן־בֹּקֶר, vékhasdékhem ka’anan-boqer). The Hebrew poets and prophets frequently refer to the morning clouds as a simile for transitoriness (e.g., Job 7:9; Isa 44:22; Hos 6:4; 13:3; 778 עָנָן 1.c). For discussion of this phenomena in Palestine, see Chaplin, (1883): 19.
77. 10 Heb “the dew departing early” ( 1014 שָׁכַם); cf. “the dew that goes away early.” The Hiphil participle מַשְׁכִּים (mashkim) means “to depart early” (Gen 19:27; Josh 8:14; Judg 19:9). The idiom means “early morning” (1 Sam 17:16).
78. 11 The two suffix conjugation verbs חָצַבְתִּי (khatsavti, Qal perfect 1st person common singular from חָצַב, khatsav, “to cut into pieces”) and הֲרַגְתִּים (haragtim, Qal perfect 1st person common singular + 3rd person masculine plural suffix from הָרַג, harag, “to kill”) are used in reference to future-time events. These are examples of the so-called “prophetic perfect” which emphasizes the certainty of the future event (e.g., Num 24:17; Josh 10:19; Isa 8:23; 9:1). For this function of the perfect, see §30.1d. Most English versions, however, render these as past tenses.
79. 12 Heb “by the prophets” (so , ). The prophets are pictured as the executioners of Israel and Judah because they announced their imminent destruction. The prophetic word was endowed with the power of fulfillment.
80. 13 Heb “them.” The shift from the 2nd person masculine singular referents (“your” and “you”) in 6:4–5 to the 3rd person masculine plural referent (“them”) is an example of enallage, a poetic device used for emphasis.
81. 14 Heb “with the words of my mouth” (so ); “with my message of judgment and destruction.”
82. 15 The disjunctive vav prefixed to the noun (וּמִשְׁפָּטֶיךָ, umishpatekha) has an explanatory function.
83. 16 The reads וּמִשְׁפָּטֶיךָ אוֹר יֵצֵא (umishpatekha ’or yetse’, “and your judgments [are] a light [which] goes forth”) which is enigmatic and syntactically awkward (cf. , ). The reads καὶ τὸ κρίμα μου ὡς φώς (kai to krima mou hōs phos, “my judgment goes forth like light”) which reflects וּמִשְׁפָּטִי כָאוֹר יֵצֵא (umishpati kha’or yetse’, “my judgment goes forth like the light”) and posits only a simple misdivision of words. This is reflected in the and Aramaic and is followed by the present translation (so also , ). See D. Barthélemy, e.d., Preliminary and Interim Report on the Hebrew Old Testament Text Project, 5:238.
84. 17 The noun אוֹר (’or, “light”) is used here in reference to the morning light or dawn (e.g., Judg 16:2; 19:26; 1 Sam 14:36; 25:34, 36; 2 Sam 17:22; 23:4; 2 Kgs 7:9; Neh 8:3; Job 24:14; Prov 4:18; Mic 2:1; cf. , ) rather than lightning (cf. ). This continues the early morning imagery used throughout 6:2–5. In 6:3 unrepentant Israel uttered an over-confident boast that the Lord would rescue the nation from calamity as certainly as the “light of the dawn” (שַׁחַר, shakhar) “comes forth” (יֵצֵא, yetse’) every morning. Playing upon the early morning imagery, the Lord responded in 6:4 that Israel’s prerequisite repentance was as fleeting as the early morning dew. Now in 6:5, the Lord announces that he will indeed appear as certainly as the morning; however, it will not be to rescue but to punish Israel: punishment will “come forth” (יֵצֵא) like the “light of the dawn” (אוֹר).
85. 18 The phrase “I delight” does not appear in the Hebrew text a second time in this verse, but is implied from the parallelism in the preceding line.
86. 19 Contrary to popular misunderstanding, Hosea does not reject animal sacrifice nor cultic ritual, and advocate instead obedience only. Rather, God does not delight in ritual sacrifice without the accompanying prerequisite moral obedience (1 Sam 15:22; Pss 40:6–8; 51:16–17; Prov 21:3; Isa 1:11–17; Jer 7:21–23; Hos 6:6; Mic 6:6–8). However, if prerequisite moral obedience is present, he delights in sacrificial worship as an outward expression (Ps 51:19). Presented by a repentant obedient worshiper, whole burnt offerings were “an aroma pleasing” to the Lord (Lev 1:9, 13).
87. 20 Or “Like Adam”; or “Like [sinful] men.” The reads כְּאָדָם (ké’adam, “like Adam” or “as [sinful] men”); however, the editors of suggest this reflects an orthographic confusion of בְּאָדָם (bé’adam, “at Adam”), as suggested by the locative adverb שָׁם (sham, “there”) in the following line. However, שָׁם sometimes functions in a nonlocative sense similar to the deictic particle הִנֵּה (hinneh, “Behold!”). The singular noun אָדָם (’adam) has been taken in several different ways: (1) proper name: “like Adam” (כְּאָדָם), (2) collective singular: “like [sinful] men” (כְּאָדָם), (3) proper location: “at Adam,” referring to a city in the Jordan Valley (Josh 3:16), emending comparative ךְּ (kaf) to locative בְּ (bet, “at”): “at Adam” (בְּאָדָם). 9 אָדָם 2 suggests the collective sense, referring to sinful men (Num 5:6; 1 Kgs 8:46; 2 Chr 6:36; Jer 10:14; Job 31:33; Hos 6:7). The English versions are divided: margin, , margin, , , margin, “like Adam”; , , “at Adam”; “like men.”
88. 21 The verb עָבַר (’avar) refers here to breaking a covenant and carries the nuance “to overstep, transgress” ( 717 עָבַר 1.i). Cf. “violated”; “transgressed.”
89. 22 The adverb שָׁם (sham) normally functions in a locative sense meaning “there” ( 1027 שָׁם). This is how it is translated by many English versions (e.g., , , , , ). However, in poetry שָׁם sometimes functions in a nonlocative sense to introduce expressions of astonishment or when a scene is vividly visualized in the writer’s imagination (see 1027 1.a.β), or somewhat similar to the deictic particle הִנֵּה (hinneh, “Behold!”): “See [שָׁם] how the evildoers lie fallen!” (Ps 36:13); “Listen! The cry on the day of the Lord will be bitter! See [שָׁם]! The shouting of the warrior!” (Zeph 1:14); “They saw [רָאוּ, ra’u] her and were astonished … See [שָׁם] how trembling seized them!” (Ps 48:7). In some cases, it introduces emphatic statements in a manner similar to הִנֵּה (“Behold!”): “Come and see [לְכוּ וּרְאוּ, lékhu uré’u] what God has done … Behold [שָׁם], let us rejoice in him!” (Ps 66:5); “See/Behold [שָׁם]! I will make a horn grow for David” (Ps 132:17). The present translation’s use of “Oh how!” in Hos 6:7 is less visual than the Hebrew idiom שָׁם (“See! See how!”), but it more closely approximates the parallel English idiom of astonishment.
90. 23 The verb בָּגַד (bagad, “to act treacherously”) is often used in reference to faithlessness in covenant relationships ( 93 בָּגַד).
91. 24 The participle phrase פֹּעֲלֵי אָוֶן (po’ale ’aven, “workers of wickedness”) emphasizes continual (uninterrupted), habitual action. This particular use of the participle is an ironic play on the professional occupation function (see §37.2c). In effect, the major “professional guild” in Gilead is evil-working; the people are producers of evil!
92. 25 Heb “it is foot-tracked with blood”; “tracked with (+ footprints of ) blood.”
93. 26 Heb “a harvest is appointed for you also, O Judah” (similar , , , , ).
94. 27 In the verse divisions of the (Leningrad Codex and Aleppo Codex), this is the last line of 6:11. However, the and editors suggest that it belongs with the beginning of 7:1. The ancient versions (Greek, , Latin) all reflect textual traditions that connect it with 6:11. The English versions are divided: some connect it with 6:11 (, , ), while others connect it with 7:1 (, , , , ). The parallelism between this line and 7:1a favors connecting it with 7:1.