Biblical Theology

Biblical theology is theology drawn from the Bible rather than theology applied to the biblical text. Biblical theology helps Christians understand the broad biblical message, discern developments in the canon—the authoritative collection of Scripture—and see how each particular text fits in with the larger story of Scripture. In studying biblical theology, interpreters are trying to determine across the entire canonical spectrum what the authors of the Bible thought or believed in their own historical contexts.

Historical research plays a significant role in biblical theology, as interpreters focus on understanding what the biblical texts meant for the original author and readers, rather than on the development of doctrine over time (which is called historical theology). Before Christians can apply Scripture accurately to the present or systematize it around various topics, they must first interpret it correctly in its historical context and with its original intended meaning. Biblical theology lays a foundation upon which other fields—such as systematic theology and practical theology—can build.

Issues in Biblical Theology

The question arises as to how readers should arrive at a biblical theology when their presuppositions, theology, and beliefs are drawn from personal experiences, cultural backgrounds, and a historical context that differ from those of the original authors. Presuppositions based on tradition, prejudice, or questionable sources should be recognized and checked against the biblical text. Readers should not assume that today’s burning issue was a pressing matter in the first century: Those who assume that their questions and concerns are identical to those of biblical writers often misinterpret the Bible. We should approach the Bible with humility, aware that we have a limited perspective.

Our understanding of the Bible and its theology depends on how we answer various questions, such as: How do the nt writers use the ot? What is the nature of the relationship between the ot and nt? What is the nature of the relationship between Israel and the Church—continuity, discontinuity, or both? Is the Church completely distinct from Israel, a continuation of Israel, or a replacement for Israel? Do the ot promises regarding the restoration of Israel find fulfillment in Jesus and the Church, or do they point ahead to a yet-future fulfillment for ethnic Israel? These questions seem complex, but they help explain why different readers arrive at different conclusions with regard to biblical theology.

Two important questions remain. Does the Bible have a central theme and, if so, what is it? For the ot, the prominent themes are covenant, promise, and the mighty acts of God—or pairs of themes, such as law and promise or creation and covenant. For the nt, proposed major themes include kingdom, gospel, justification, new creation, salvation, eschatology (theology of the end times), and Christology, theology of the person of Christ. For the Bible as a whole, major themes include salvation history, the Messiah, God’s covenant faithfulness, God’s glory, the people of God, and creation and new creation. The difficulty with these proposals is that broad themes (such as God or Christ) are too general to render much interpretive insight, whereas more specific themes are not sufficiently comprehensive. Thus, looking at multiple themes or integrative motifs results in greater understanding of the Bible in its complexity.

The practice of biblical theology also has resulted in greater awareness of the unity and diversity found in the biblical text. An author’s emphasis may have varied depending on the intended situation or the audience. Note the different ways in which Paul and James speak of the relationship between faith and works (compare Rom 3:28; Jas 2:24).

Such diversity has led some to doubt the fundamental unity of the Bible—but upon closer examination, legitimate harmonization is possible. For instance, regarding faith and works, a close study of Romans and James makes clear that Paul and James do not use the terms “faith” and “works” in the same way: Paul stresses that salvation is entirely a work of God, to which people cannot add, whereas James emphasizes the role of works subsequent to salvation. With regard to the differing details of Jesus’ parables in the Synoptic Gospels, it is highly probable that Jesus, as an itinerant Jewish teacher, shared similar stories and teachings at different occasions with different audiences, which may account for some of the diversity exhibited by the Synoptic Gospels. Other apparent discrepancies may be due to variations among manuscripts, differences in genre, lack of scientific and chronological precision among ancient authors, or the development of the Bible’s teaching over the course of the canon.

The diversity of expression in Scripture pales in comparison to the theological unity in the Bible regarding its main themes: God, Christ, creation, covenant, salvation, and so on. These and other themes unify the canon and speak with one voice concerning God’s activity in history and His saving of creation.

The Method of Biblical Theology

Several different methods can be used to understand the Bible on its own terms as well as within its historical context. According to the “systematic” approach, readers focus on the contribution of various biblical writings under broad topical headings, such as “the Christian life,” “ethics,” and “the future.” This allows readers to see how biblical teaching on certain topics unfolds as the storyline of Scripture progresses. The “one author at a time” approach allows readers to focus on the contributions of each biblical author, center on a given theme, and explore its development across the ot and nt. In a “symphonic” approach, readers seek to place the various authors of the nt in dialogue with each other on particular topics such as sin, Christ, or the end times.

Each book of the Bible was written from a particular location, in a particular time period, to a specific audience, with a unique purpose. Detailed analysis focuses on how these differences result in a book’s distinctive contribution. However, biblical theology cannot stop there—the Bible, as divinely inspired Scripture, speaks with a unified voice and purpose. This calls for synthesis: the drawing together of varying contributions into a unified whole. Readers must not be content with having studied the theology of only one author but must understand how that voice fits in with other voices in the authoritative collection of Scripture, or the canon. In order to produce a truly “biblical” theology, the parts of the Bible must be understood in relation to the whole.

The New Testament Use of the Old Testament

How the nt writers use the ot significantly informs the practice of biblical theology. As they interpreted and proclaimed the significance of Jesus’ life, ministry, death, and resurrection, the nt authors drew extensively upon the ot—and thus provides a standard by which to evaluate various biblical theologies. Apart from sustained reference to the nt use of the ot, interpreters are in danger of developing biblical theologies that do not accurately represent the Bible’s own theology.

Doing Biblical Theology

Biblical theology cannot be left exclusively to scholars. The act of putting together what the Bible says makes every Christian a biblical theologian. Determine the focus of your study, whether it’s following a specific theme or author. Identify the relevant passages that relate to your focus using a concordance, study Bible, or Bible dictionary. Study each relevant passage, paying careful attention to the surrounding text and the place of the passage in the broader biblical storyline. Determine, to the best of your ability, what the author meant to communicate to the original audience. Trace the development of a theme through the various biblical books. You can confidently apply the results of your study after you have sufficiently explored the Bible’s teaching on the subject, although you should always be open to the possibility of correction.

Andreas J. Köstenberger

Further Reading

How to Study the Bible

The Formation of the Old Testament

The Pentateuch

The Historical Books

Wisdom Literature

The Major Prophets

The Minor Prophets

The Formation of the New Testament

The Graeco-Roman Background of the New Testament

The Gospel of John and the Johannine Letters

The Pastoral Letters

Apocalyptic Literature