The Graeco-Roman Background of the New Testament

Toward the end of the Hebrew Bible, the Israelites were freed from exile and permitted to go back to their homeland (2 Chr 36:22–23). The decree by Cyrus the Great announcing this release seemed like the liberation from exile promised by the prophets long ago. At the beginning of the nt, however, Israel was not a free nation: It was a country under the control of the Roman government (Matt 2:3; Luke 2:1–3). Between the decree of Cyrus and the writing of the nt, Rome grew into an empire, gaining control over several territories, including Palestine—a development that directly affected the ministry of Christ and the teaching of Paul and other nt authors.

From the End of the Exile to the Roman Government

Long before the Roman Empire gained control of Palestine, Alexander the Great conquered much of the known world. This included Palestine, which Alexander “Hellenized” by importing the Greek language, architecture, and culture into this and other non-Greek countries. Alexander died young, leaving neither a plan nor preparations for a successor. Many fought to fill the vacuum of power he left. Palestine and other areas became prizes in the ensuing battle, and eventually Alexander’s empire broke up into several smaller provinces with leaders called Diadochoi (or “Successors”). The two most important for the study of Palestine and the nt were the Seleucids and the Ptolemies. The Seleucids controlled the area north of Israel (now Syria), while the Ptolemies controlled the area south of Israel (Egypt).

Division between the Ptolemies and the Seleucids led to the establishment of Palestine as a “buffer zone” between them. As result, Palestine became the site of many wars as the Seleucids and Ptolemies sought to add it to their province. While there was a short time of peace after the Maccabean revolt against the Seleucids, it did not last long. The many scuffles between Jewish groups led to the fall of the Jewish ruling dynasty (the Hasmoneans) in 63 bc. Palestine was then put under the control of Rome.

How Did Roman Control affect the Writing of the New Testament?

Three important aspects of the Roman government affected the writing of the nt: governing forces, taxes, and roads.

Roman Government

Rather than provide Palestine with peace, the Pax Romana seemed to trade one group of factions for another. However, the nt shows that God used the Roman government to accomplish His plans, especially in the birth of Jesus and the trials of Paul.

Luke reports Jesus’ birth taking place in Bethlehem. Each adult male was ordered by Caesar to return to his place of birth for a census and taxation (Luke 2:1–2). Thus, it was in Bethlehem, the birthplace of Joseph, that Jesus was born—fulfilling the prophecy of Mic 5:2.

Matthew speaks of Herod the Great, the cruel ruler of Palestine who was unwilling to share his power (Matt 2:1–2). When the wise men asked Herod about the newborn “king of the Jews,” he immediately became upset (and because of his reputation, “all Jerusalem with him”; Matt 2:3). Herod eventually had all male children of Bethlehem slaughtered because of this possible challenge to his power. Matthew reminds the reader that this represented a fulfilled prophecy as well, demonstrating God’s power even over those who wickedly rule on behalf of Rome (Jer 31:15; Matt 2:18).

The Roman government also affected the life of Paul. His trials, imprisonment, and eventual death happened at the hands of the government. While the book of Acts provides most of the information about Paul’s trials and imprisonment, according to early Christian tradition, Paul was beheaded (Eusebius, Hist. eccl. 2.25.7–8). Paul’s Roman citizenship exempted him by law from the horrors of crucifixion (Acts 22:25).

From the birth of Jesus to the imprisonment of Paul, no one could escape the wide net of Rome’s control. While the nt casts Rome’s actions as ultimately fulfilling the will of God, Roman rule was oppressive for Jewish people at the time (compare Josephus, J.W. 2:12; 224–225).

Roman Taxes

Palestinians in the nt era can be divided into four basic groups, from the economically prosperous to the very poor. The smallest group was the “ruling elite,” a category including Herod the Great. This small percentage of the population was considered very rich.

The “retainer class” made up the second tier. These were the strength and “muscle” of the rulers: the “courtiers and military tribunes and the most prominent men of Galilee” (Mark 6:21). Not as rich as the ruling elite, they were better off than simple landowners. They received payment either from Rome or the leader they supported and fared much better than those dependent upon the agrarian economy.

“Landowners” composed the third tier. They usually depended on a small piece of land for their livelihood. Unable to aspire to a higher class, they were always in danger of falling into the lowest class of society because of taxes, harvest problems, or property seizure by the ruling elite. This tier and the one below included the vast majority of Palestinians. The differences between the top and bottom two tiers was immense.

“Peasants” occupied the bottom of the social scale. Without land or much money, they did whatever they could to survive, often depending upon day labor (Matt 20:1–2), thievery (Luke 10:30), and prostitution (Matt 21:31).

Landowners lost their land and became peasants if they could not pay their taxes. At minimum, the Roman government levied a land and personal tax, and many regions also had additional taxes. This placed an incredible burden on those living on the edge of poverty. The poverty in Palestine due to Roman taxation serves as a backdrop for the Gospels, as Jesus emphasized God’s care for the poor (Matt 5:3) as well as trust in God’s care despite poverty (Matt 6:11, 26).

Because of the dichotomy between rich and poor, the lower tiers fostered hatred of tax collectors (Luke 5:30). Revolts often occurred. Josephus mentions a case in which residents who did not join a revolt became eligible for a one-quarter decrease in their taxes (Josephus, J.W. 2:6; 96). Many of the poor in Israel saw no way out of their plight, and they hoped for a leader who would lead a revolt against Rome and revive David’s reign.

Roman Roads

The saying “all roads lead to Rome” was not far from the truth during the first century ad. Rome built a structure of roads unequaled for several centuries. The major roads were paved with stones, while minor ones were covered with sand or gravel. They were used for military travel, mail (governmental and personal, such as Paul’s letters), and personal travel, usually on foot.

Paul was likely one of the most traveled persons of his time. He engaged in three missionary journeys, traveling by boat and on foot (Acts 13:1–14; 28:14–16). Roman roads helped facilitate the spread of the gospel. While Paul left the main roads from time to time, many of the churches he formed were on widely traveled roads. Believers in these cities continued to have widespread effect on the empire—sharing the gospel with other travelers.

The influence of Roman roads also appears in the letters to the seven churches in the book of Revelation (Rev 2:1–3:22). A letter carrier leaving the island of Patmos and traveling along a Roman road could encounter each of the churches mentioned in the order listed in the book (Ephesus first, Laodicea last).

Travel was made easier as a result of the Roman government, which allowed for the gospel’s spread on a scale that would not have been possible before. While different views exist regarding the influence of Rome on the nt authors and their view of the empire, the writings of the first century were certainly influenced by the empire. Understanding the historical and social context of the Roman Empire helps us better understand the nt.

Samuel Lamerson

Further Reading:

The Formation of the New Testament

Rome CLBD

Rome

Rome: Overview

Rome

Rome/Roman Empire

Rome and the Roman Empire

Rome and Roman Christianity

Rome, City Of