The Pentateuch

The term “Pentateuch” refers to the first five books of the Bible—Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy. In the Hebrew Bible and Judaism, these books are referred to as the Torah. They are considered sacred and authoritative.

Authorship

Jewish and Christian traditions ascribe the Pentateuch to Moses. However, modern scholarship is divided on the authorship and composition history of the Pentateuch. Some have asserted that the Pentateuch was compiled over a period of centuries as multiple authors or communities produced distinct versions of Israel’s early history and laws. Julius Wellhausen (1844–1918) articulated the most influential version of this theory, identifying four sources in the Pentateuch that he called J, E, D, and P. This model for the origin of the Pentateuch is called the Documentary Hypothesis.

Proponents of the Documentary Hypothesis identify and categorize supposed unique sources within the Pentateuch based on changes in style, vocabulary, and content. Over time, according to this view, various editors (called redactors) combined the source documents and added other material to create the Pentateuch as we know it.

However, there is no real consensus about the Documentary Hypothesis in modern scholarship; even among those who hold to the viewpoint, there is great variation in how the theoretical sources are understood, divided, and how many sources there are.

Current opinions on the composition of the Pentateuch vary widely, from affirming traditional Mosaic authorship to complex theories involving multiple sources being woven together over centuries of textual transmission. Nonetheless, J, E, D, and P are still often used as convenient labels for identifying different types of content in the Pentateuch, apart from questions of sources or authorship.

Content and Themes of Each Book

The fundamental purpose of the Pentateuch is to define the origin, mission, and institutions of Israel as God’s elect nation, chosen for His purposes in the world. Utilizing multiple settings, narratives, and laws the Pentateuch articulates this viewpoint.

Genesis

In Genesis 12:1–3, Abraham is called by Yahweh to leave his homeland because God has chosen him and will give the land of Canaan to his offspring. This text defines Israel’s ultimate mission: All the nations of earth will find blessing through Abraham’s offspring.

Genesis 1–11 is a prologue to Abraham’s election; it describes a world estranged from God and in need of reconciliation, illustrated by the expulsion from Eden, Cain’s murder of Abel, the flood, and the Tower of Babel. Genesis 12–50 describes God’s special protection and provision for the patriarchs, caring for Abraham even when he was acting dishonorably (Gen 12:10–20), and using Joseph’s brothers’ jealousy to secure a place for Israel in Egypt (Gen 50:20). Genesis also continually defines and refines the identity of Israel: The elect people are the offspring of Abraham and not Lot (father of Moab and Ammon), of Isaac and not Ishmael (father of the Ishmaelites), of Jacob and not Esau (father of the Edomites).

Exodus

The history of Israel as a nation (not just a family) begins with Exodus, and Exodus is also in many ways the wellspring of Old Testament theology. Israel is transformed from a mass of migrants and slaves to a unified nation. Their dependence on Yahweh is defined when their liberation is brought about entirely by Yahweh’s initiative through the plagues on Egypt (Exod 7–14). Moses emerges as the paradigm for the prophets as he speaks for Yahweh (Exod 9:1–4), does mighty works (Exod 14:21–29), and intercedes when the people sin (Exod 32:11–14). The Sinai (or Mosaic) covenant establishes the bond between Yahweh and Israel (Exod 19:5–6), and the tent of meeting, where Yahweh dwells among His people, demonstrates Israel’s privileged status (Exod 25–27). Exodus describes two of Israel’s ritual days: Passover (Exod 12:1–32) and the Sabbath (Exod 16:22–30). The Ten Commandments and the statutes of Exodus 21–23 define Israel’s duties to Yahweh as well as their civil institutions. Exodus initiates the central sanctuary (Exod 25–27) and the Aaronic priesthood—the descendants of Aaron, Moses’ brother (Exod 28–31).

In the golden calf narrative (Exod 32:1–6), Exodus describes the pattern of idolatry that would plague Israel throughout its history and lead to its eventual destruction. Exodus also establishes God’s character: He keeps His covenant (Exod 2:24), He is the great victor over evil (as shown at the crossing of the sea in Exodus 14), He is holy (Exod 19:10–13), and above all, He is “gracious and compassionate” (Exod 34:6). The theology of Deuteronomy and the prophets is often an expansion of themes in Exodus. Throughout the Old Testament, the exodus, the plagues, the Sinai covenant, the golden calf, and other events from the book of Exodus are treated as paradigms.

Leviticus

Leviticus is Israel’s guide to holy living—for all the people, not just the priests. Even when Leviticus focuses on rules for the priests (Lev 8–10), the message is that the Aaronic priesthood has been consecrated for the sake of all Israelites. In describing what sacrifices to offer (Lev 1–7), Leviticus tells the people how to worship Yahweh. All of life becomes sacred through the introduction of ritual into matters of food, dress, and care for the body (with respect to diet in Lev 11, childbirth in Lev 12, and contagion in Lev 13–14). Holiness, however, is not just a matter of ritual cleanness; Leviticus 18–20 gives extensive teaching on sexual purity, the proper treatment of one’s neighbors, and idolatrous practices to avoid.

Numbers

Numbers continues the narrative and legal themes begun in Exodus. More information about the nature of the Israelite camp, its relationship to the tent of meeting, and the first Passover is given in Numbers 1:1–9:14. Further commands regarding sacrifices, the priests, and ritual cleanness appear in Numbers 15–19. The pattern of Israelite disobedience also continues; another incident involving complaints about food and the appearance of quail occurs in Numbers 11:1–35 (compare Exod 16:13), and another incident in Meribah involving thirst takes place in Numbers 20:1–13 (compare Exod 17:1–7). The people again rebel against the directives regarding the invasion of Canaan in Numbers 14:1–45, with catastrophic results—and as with the golden calf, Moses again intercedes for them (Num 15:13–19; see Exod 32:11–14; 34:6–7). On the other hand, the Balaam episode (Num 22–24) illustrates the principle from Genesis 12:3 that Yahweh comes to the defense of His people, cursing those who curse Israel.

Deuteronomy

Deuteronomy is both the summation of the Pentateuch and essentially the first book of prophecy. The book is basically Moses’ prophetic sermon, and it foretells Israel’s disobedience, destruction, and eventual restoration (Deut 29:22–30:5). Deuteronomy 1–4 summarizes the story of Israel in the wilderness, and the bulk of Deuteronomy 5–26 restates, expands upon, or modifies the laws given in Exodus, Leviticus, and Numbers. Deuteronomy 5:1–21, for example, restates the Ten Commandments from Exodus 20:1–17. Deuteronomy is also the restatement of the Sinai covenant between Yahweh and Israel. The book is similar to suzerain-vassal treaties from the 14th century bc. In these treaties, a superior “suzerain” state makes a covenant with a subordinate “vassal” state; this type of relationship is similar to Yahweh’s covenant with Israel. Thus Deuteronomy is in some respect similar to these ancient treaties.

The Pentateuch and the Rest of Scripture

Taken as a whole, the Pentateuch is a coherent and unified work. Together these books assert that people are estranged from Yahweh due to sin, but Yahweh chose Israel and gave them a unique identity and mission as His people in order to bring blessing to all the nations of the earth. In the histories and prophecies of the Old Testament, Israel, like the rest of the humanity, demonstrates its sinfulness; but the promise of salvation is sustained as prophets pointed Yahweh’s people toward a new and marvelous work that He would do in the future. In the Messiah, Jesus, we see how Yahweh’s covenant love finally overcomes human sin and discover that truly “salvation is from the Jews” (John 4:22).

Duane Garrett

Further Reading

Genesis, Book of CLBD

Exodus, Book of CLBD

Leviticus, Book of CLBD

Numbers, Book of CLBD

Deuteronomy, Book of CLBD

Documentary Hypothesis CLBD

Pentateuch, Samaritan CLBD

How to Study the Bible

The Formation of the Old Testament

Biblical Theology