Wisdom Literature

Few parts of the Bible are as theologically rich and yet largely neglected as the Wisdom Literature. While wisdom themes and language appear throughout the Old Testament, they occur in concentrated form in the books of Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, and Job. Today, these books constitute the genre of Wisdom Literature in Protestant Bibles.

Ancient Near Eastern Context

Wisdom literature is not unique to Israel. Comparable literature is found throughout the ancient Near East, particularly in Egypt. However, Old Testament Wisdom Literature is unique in its insistence that wisdom has one source: Yahweh (Prov 3:19).

Wisdom is deeply experiential and concerned with how to live a happy and successful life amid everyday challenges. Thus, wisdom literature appropriately appears throughout the ancient Near East, as various cultures developed their own traditions from lived experiences. In the Bible, the experiential wisdom handed down through generations most obviously appears in the short proverbs or aphorisms found in Proverbs 10–29. Of course, we need to allow Old Testament wisdom to shape how we understand happy and successful. It is clear from Job that in order to gain wisdom, we may have to experience profound suffering. Nevertheless, the Old Testament clearly establishes that wisdom represents the path to blessing.

The Relationship Between Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, and Job

Exploring the unique contribution of Wisdom Literature to the Bible requires an understanding of the relationship between Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, and Job. The book of Proverbs is sometimes labeled “early” or “traditional wisdom.” This is correct in that it serves as the foundation for wisdom theology in the Old Testament and sets out the overarching principles of wisdom (see Prov 1–9). Four categories have been identified as central to Proverbs and thus to Israel’s view of wisdom:

1. Wisdom is grounded in the “fear of Yahweh.”

2. Wisdom is concerned with discerning the order built into the creation by Yahweh.

3. Wisdom focuses on discerning God’s ways in particular circumstances.

4. Wisdom is grounded in tradition.1

Given that Proverbs sets out the Israelite view of wisdom, Job and Ecclesiastes make the most sense when read against its background. These two books primarily focus on the idea that things can (and do) go wrong in life. While Proverbs also acknowledges this fact, it is not the primary focus of the book; rather, Proverbs lays the foundation for Old Testament wisdom by emphasizing proper fear of Yahweh and the relationship between a person’s character and everyday consequences.

Proverbs

Proverbs is not a random collection of axioms; it has been carefully edited into a literary whole, moving from the preface to its climax in the vision evoked by the valiant woman. Throughout the work, it covers key themes.

Fear of God

A central and recurring theme throughout the book of Proverbs is that the fear of Yahweh is the beginning of knowledge or wisdom (Prov 1:7, 29; 2:5; 8:13; 10:27; 14:27; 15:16, 33; 16:6; 19:23; 23:17; 31:30). “Fear” is best understood as holy reverence of Yahweh—the redeemer and covenant God who rescued the Israelites from slavery and brought them to Himself (Exod 19:4). Such an attitude toward God represents the beginning of wisdom in two ways: It serves as the foundation on which all true wisdom and knowledge is built, and it is the starting point for the journey of life and exploration of God’s world. God created the world by wisdom, and He offers this same wisdom to His people (Prov 3:19; 8:22); gaining wisdom is of surpassing value (Prov 2).

Character—Consequence

The preface to Proverbs (Prov 1:2–6) amasses a variety of terms that alerts the reader to the advantages of wisdom. Proverbs 1–9 alternates between speeches of a father to his adolescent son and speeches by Lady Wisdom, all of which emphasize the great value of pursuing and finding wisdom. Verses like Proverbs 3:9–10 indicate that wisdom results in blessing, which can include material prosperity.

Proverbs 1–9 sets out the basic principles of wisdom, central to which is the “character—consequence” theme: Those who seek wisdom and live by it can expect to flourish. God designed the world such that flourishing is a consequence of developed character. These chapters also acknowledge that wisdom involves Yahweh’s discipline and reproof (see Prov 3:11–12). In later sections of the book of Proverbs, there is a greater focus on exceptions to the character—consequence theme. These exceptions are foregrounded, particularly in the “better than” proverbs (e.g., Prov 16:23; 22:1). The writer of Proverbs is well aware that in a fallen world, the wise may end up impoverished.2

The Valiant Woman

Proverbs culminates in Proverbs 31 with a rich evocation of lived wisdom by depicting the valiant woman. Proverbs 31:10–31 is an acrostic poem, with each verse beginning with a consecutive letter of the Hebrew alphabet. It is written in the form of a hymn—a literary style normally reserved for God or great warriors. Although there are no references to “religious” activities in her description, she is lauded as one who fears Yahweh (Prov 31:30). Her general manner of living manifests her fear of Yahweh. This shows that Old Testament wisdom did not uphold a sacred/secular dualism that pervades contemporary Christianity. Because God is the Creator, we are called to be wise in all areas of life. Thus, the valiant woman is portrayed as a wife (Prov 31:10–12), homemaker (Prov 31:13–15, 21), businesswoman (she imports food from afar and trades in fabric of the highest quality; Prov 31:14, 24), wine producer (Prov 31:16), and craftsperson (Prov 31:19, 22, 24). In addition, she performs works of charity (Prov 31:20) and teaches wisdom (Prov 31:26).

Ecclesiastes

Both Job and Ecclesiastes deal with suffering. In Ecclesiastes, Qohelet—the Hebrew word for the name of the speaker throughout Ecclesiastes—is suffering more of an intellectual crisis, whereas Job suffers physical and emotional anguish. The narrator of Ecclesiastes introduces Qohelet, a figure gifted with wisdom and wealth. Ecclesiastes 1:2 summarizes Qohelet’s teaching: “Vanity of vanities! All is vanity!”—an expression of despair. A variety of translations for the Hebrew term used here, hevel, have been proposed. Hevel may be literally rendered as “vapor” or “breath.” In Ecclesiastes, hevel seems to hold the metaphorical force of “enigmatic”; Qohelet has found his way into what may be called a “cloud of unknowing,” and he cannot determine whether life has any meaning. His quest for meaning in life, couched in the rhetorical question of Ecclesiastes 1:3—“What does a person gain in all his toil?”—represents a deep existential crisis and profound intellectual suffering.

Scholars are divided into two camps when it comes to the overarching message of Ecclesiastes. It could be a despairing book to which an editor added an epilogue (Eccl 12:9–14) to make the book more acceptable, or the epilogue could indicate that the overall message is positive. Either way, the struggle contained in the book and evoked by Qohelet’s regular conclusions of hevel must not be downplayed.

Throughout the book of Ecclesiastes, Qohelet’s hevel conclusions appear next to so-called “carpe diem sayings” (e.g., Eccl 2:24–26). These joyful passages do not reflect a despairing hedonism but a typical Old Testament celebration of the goodness of creation. They refer to eating, drinking, and enjoying the pleasures of life. It is best to see these hevel and carpe diem phrases as contradictory juxtapositions. No matter what area of life he explores, Qohelet’s method of exploration—which he calls “wisdom” (Eccl 1:13; 2:9)—constantly leads him to his hevel conclusion. But each time he reaches this dark point, we find a carpe diem passage juxtaposed.

This juxtaposition of contradictory views forces the reader to look closely at Qohelet’s method of exploration (or epistemology). His wisdom is very different from what Proverbs calls wisdom; whereas wisdom begins with fear of Yahweh in Proverbs, Qohelet seems to rely on reason, observation, and experience—fear of God is only noted in the epilogue (Eccl 12:9–14). If Ecclesiastes was written in the fourth century bc, it is possible that the author was influenced by Greek thought. In the postexilic period, it was difficult for the Jewish people to see what had happened to God’s promises and purposes; in the light of Greek epistemology, Qohelet cannot find meaning anywhere in life. However, the carpe diem passages stem from his Israelite tradition. Even as he keeps coming to his hevel conclusions, he cannot deny the truth that life is good and full of things to enjoy. The heart of Ecclesiastes is the tension between these two views.

The final chapters of Ecclesiastes demonstrate how Qohelet’s dilemma is resolved (Eccl 11:7–12:8). The idea of remembering and rejoicing dominate this section and provide the key to the resolution of his crisis. Ecclesiastes 12:1–7 is Qohelet’s equivalent of Proverb’s claim that the fear of Yahweh is the beginning of wisdom. His former epistemology is reversed; it now starts with God as Creator rather than his own experiences, reason, and observations. This does not detract from the challenges of life, as the epilogue also makes clear, but it provides a foundation for living amid the mysteries of life.

Job

In the book of Job, resolution to suffering also emerges through an encounter with God as Creator (Job 38:1–42:6). Job’s suffering is clearly described; he is stripped of everything important to him and crippled with bad health (Job 1:6–2:10). Initially, he makes a remarkable confession of faith (Job 1:21). He then takes part in conversations with his friends and God before returning to his formerly stated position of faith, now more fully embraced and understood (Job 42:5). Job’s suffering is not resolved intellectually but through a remarkable encounter with God.

While the extent of suffering in Job and Ecclesiastes seems to contradict the character—consequence theme of Proverbs, these books are not really exceptions. Wisdom is not just about technique—it is about the formation of the believer at the deepest levels. This is what we witness in both Job and Ecclesiastes: Suffering is a way God makes His people truly wise.

Wisdom Literature and the Rest of Scripture

Wisdom Literature in the Old Testament insists that creation as a whole comes from God, and that wisdom means seeking God’s ways in all areas of life. Wisdom, with its robust doctrine of creation, is theologically vital for a modern Christian faith that seeks to whole-heartedly serve God. Wisdom Literature also provides an important background for the New Testament, in which Jesus is portrayed as Wisdom incarnate (John 1:1–2). Jesus fulfills all aspects of the Old Testament—wisdom included.

Craig G. Bartholomew

Further Reading

Proverbs, Book of CLBD

Ecclesiastes, Book of CLBD

Job, Book of CLBD

How to Study the Bible

The Formation of the Old Testament

Biblical Theology

Wisdom and Related Terms

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Wisdom Literature