Divided Kingdom, Exile, and Return

Beginning in the ninth century bc, epigraphic evidence for Israel, Judah, and names identical or similar to those known from the Bible becomes much more common in the historical record (Iron IIB; ca. 925–539 bc). Each piece of evidence brings with it its own perspective on events. Whereas the explicit mention of names found in the Bible attests to its historical value, these historical records often challenge the biblical narrative with respect to how specific events occurred, if they occurred, and how certain kings and kingdoms really operated. The available references to Israel, Judah, and their respective leaders excavated thus far, including a brief description of how each artifact both corroborates and challenges the biblical text, include:

• The Mesha Stele (ca. 840 bc) is written from the point of view of Mesha, king of Moab. The stele narrates a military conflict with “Omri, king of Israel” and later with Omri’s son, King Ahab. According to the Mesha Stele, Israel under Omri and Ahab was a powerful and wealthy nation, and Omri and Ahab successfully expanded its border eastward into Moab. The stele also records Mesha’s defensive victory over Ahab and Moab’s subsequent repossession of its land. This inscription both confirms the existence of Omri and Ahab and supplements the brief mention of Omri in 1 Kgs 16:21–28, filling out some of the unknown elements of his reign. The Mesha Stele also gives details of Ahab’s activities abroad, which are not mentioned in the 1 Kings account of his reign (1 Kgs 16–22).

• The Black Obelisk of Shalmaneser III is a Neo-Assyrian monument from the ancient Mesopotamian city at Nimrud that commemorates the deeds of King Shalmaneser III of Assyria. Such deeds include Shalmaneser’s subjugation of the Israelites. The obelisk includes two illustrations with accompanying inscriptions, which depict two events in Israel’s history: paying tribute to Shalmaneser III, and King Jehu of Israel bowing before his throne (ca. 825 bc). However, these events are not mentioned in the biblical account of Jehu’s reign (2 Kgs 9–10).

• The Tel Dan Inscription (ca. 870–750 bc) from Syria recounts another military victory, perhaps from the reign of King Hazael (1 Kgs 19:15–17; 2 Kgs 8–9; 10:32; 12:17–18; 13:3, 22–25; compare 2 Chr 22:5–6; Amos 1:4), though the inscription is fragmentary, making identification difficult. The Tel Dan Inscription describes a military conflict of Syria against Israel and Judah. The names of the rulers involved in the conflict cannot be restored; however, the inscription specifies that the king fighting alongside the king of Israel was from “the House of David“—the only mention of King David or his dynasty outside of the biblical text.

• The Siloam Inscription tells of the completion of a water tunnel, verifying one of the building activities of King Hezekiah of Judah (see 2 Kgs 20:20; compare 2 Chr 32:3–4; ca. 720–680 bc). Although the fragmentary text does not mention Hezekiah by name, the archaeological dating coincides with the period of his reign in Jerusalem and the building of the Siloam Tunnel.

• Sennacherib’s Prism records Sennacherib’s triumphs in six columns; the triumphs include a campaign against Judah (as also told in 2 Kgs 18–19). The prism also mentions a siege of Jerusalem and King Hezekiah, whom Sennacherib subjected “like a bird in a cage.”

• The Babylonian Chronicles, some of which date to the sixth century, record a few biblical events, including Jehoiakim’s refusal to pay tribute (2 Kgs 24:1); Nebuchadnezzar’s siege of Jerusalem (2 Kgs 24:10–11); and Jehoiachin’s capture (2 Kgs 24:12)—but from a different perspective on the details of those events.

• The Lachish ostraca are a series of letters and blessings written on potsherds and including the name Yahweh (“the Lord”), as well as theophoric names (i.e., names which include all or part of the name of God). The ostraca were likely written before the Babylonian captivity, during the time of Nebuchadnezzar’s takeover of Judah.

• The Cyrus Cylinder dates to the sixth century and records a declaration by Cyrus the Great. It supports the biblical account of Israel’s return from exile (Ezra 1; 2 Chr 36:22–23), though it adds that Cyrus’ policy held for all captives, not just those from Judah.