Old Testament Anthropology

In the ot, humans are consistently portrayed as the fusion of an immaterial life force and a body of flesh. Neither part on its own constitutes a living person—only the whole. There are two main terms used to describe the immaterial part of humans: “soul” (nephesh) and “spirit” (ruach). However, the various meanings of the terms can make interpretation difficult.

The ot terms for “soul” (nephesh) and “spirit” (ruach) are consistently used to identify either the life force—the fact that the body is living—or attributes dependent on brain function, such as emotions, intelligence, and conscience. The terms are used interchangeably. Genesis introduces another term that refers to the life force: nishmath. It is used in the only description of the origin of the soul, in which God animates the first human—Adam—by breathing into him the “breath (nishmath) of life” (Gen 2:7; compare Josh 11:11). While animals are not said to be animated in the same way, they are described as having the nephesh (Gen 1:21, 24) and ruach (Eccl 3:21).

However, nishmath is used interchangeably with nephesh and ruach, which eliminates it as a unique term. The usage of these terms also overlaps with “heart” (leb/lebab) (for a table comparing the usage of these terms in the ot, see the table link below).

The Nature of Humans in the New Testament

While certain nt passages seem to contradict the ot regarding the immaterial nature of human beings, this is not the case. For example, Heb 4:12 refers to the Word of God’s ability to “divide the soul and spirit.” However, this does not indicate an actual division between soul and spirit. Rather, the verse claims that the Word of God can penetrate the inner person in such a way—not that such a division exists prior to its work. Soul and spirit are no more separated in Heb 4:12 than “bone and marrow” of the same verse.

Another nt example is 1 Thess 5:23. While this passage seems to indicate that one part of the inner person may be the image of God, Paul is likely expressing his wish that believers be sanctified as completely as possible. Paul uses the Greek word holotelēs to express his wish for complete sanctification—a term that means “in every way complete.” Paul knew the ot well; he would not violate its teaching.

Although the Bible makes clear that humans have an immaterial existence outside the body at death (2 Cor 5:8; note that humans will be re-embodied: 1 Cor 15:35–50), this reality cannot be decisively connected to any single biblical term for the inner life—the concept is much broader than that.

Michael S. Heiser

Further Reading:

Old Testament Anthropological Terms Table

Image of God CLBD

Image of God DOT: P