16:1–58 Ezekiel expands the traditional prophetic motif of Israel as Yahweh’s unfaithful bride into a graphic symbolic story (or allegory), depicting Israel’s political and religious activities as brazen infidelity. Ezekiel’s language is crude and explicit, characterizing Israel as an adulteress with an insatiable sexual appetite. The overall meaning of the metaphor is clear, but the specific details are complicated; the boundary between literal and figurative is often blurred. The extended metaphor covers the full range of Israel’s history, presenting Israel as an abandoned infant, an attractive young woman, a radiant bride, and a married seductress. Yahweh narrates the story in the first person, with Himself in the role of king and husband. Like any metaphor, the comparisons break down when pressed in the details. The depictions of violent humiliation and punishment against the unfaithful bride should be read as symbolic of the Babylonian invasion and destruction of Judah, not as a model for the literal treatment of an adulterous wife.

16:2 its detestable things Refers to her idolatry. See note on 5:9.

16:3 the land of the Canaanites The city of Jerusalem represents the land of Judah, and by extension, God’s chosen people. Jerusalem was a Canaanite city before David conquered it and made it his capital (2 Sam 5:6–9).

your father was an Amorite, and your mother was a Hittite The Amorites and Hittites were pre-Israelite inhabitants of Canaan. The list of Canaanite peoples is repeated frequently in Exodus (e.g., Exod 3:8). The emphasis on Jerusalem’s Canaanite ancestry would have been insulting to Ezekiel’s Israelite audience.

16:4 your umbilical cord was not cut None of the typical procedures for handling a newborn were followed.

and you were not thoroughly rubbed with salt An ancient practice still performed by Palestinian Arab mothers, who believe it to be beneficial.

and you were not carefully wrapped in strips of cloth The sequence of actions—cutting the umbilical cord, washing the baby, rubbing with salt, and wrapping in cloth—would have been performed by a midwife attending the birth. The symbolism emphasizes that no one who cared about the child was present.

16:5 you were thrown into the open field Infanticide was practiced in the ancient world, usually involving unwanted females or deformed infants. It also was a means of population control, usually out of economic necessity; some villages had trouble supporting the existing children.

16:6 I passed by you Yahweh takes on the role of a passerby who sees the infant in the field and takes responsibility for her well-being.

I said to you in your blood, “Live Ancient Near Eastern texts use phrasing related to birth fluid and blood in legal adoption formulas. Yahweh is declaring His intent to adopt the baby, simultaneously claiming all legal right to the child.

16:7 Grow up; I will make you like a plant of Compare the vineyard and vine imagery of Isa 5:1–7.

Your breasts were formed Ezekiel describes the young woman’s form and sexual appeal. The girl’s growth and development is attributed to Yahweh’s care, though contextually He has left her to develop while still naked in the field.

your hair had grown Juxtaposed with the statement about developed breasts, the reference to hair likely refers to pubic hair. Development of breasts and pubic hair were traditional symbols of sexual maturity. The young woman was now ready for marriage and sexuality.

you were naked and bare The development of the young woman is clearly visible since she is still naked and bare in the open field.

16:8 And I passed by you She is still in the field. Yahweh passes by again. The first time, He formally adopted her as a daughter; this time, their relationship becomes a marriage arrangement.

time of lovemaking The readiness for marriage is described physically in Ezek 16:7. The Hebrew word used here for love, dodim, refers specifically to sexual love (see Song 5:1).

I spread out my hem over you Signifies the intent to marry the woman (compare Ruth 3:9).

I swore to you Entering into a marriage covenant with her.

16:9 And I washed you with water The cleansing that did not occur at birth (Ezek 16:4) is now part of Yahweh’s care for His new bride.

16:10–13 Having taken Jerusalem as wife, Yahweh provides her with clothing and food, advancing her status to that of a queen. The clothes are made of the finest fabrics, and her leather footwear would have been an expensive luxury, signifying wealth and power. The list of jewelry is reminiscent of that in Isa 3:18–23. Yahweh adorns His bride with a necklace, bracelets, nose ring, earrings, and a royal tiara. Her food is made of the highest quality of the flour, honey, and oil that formed the staples of the diet.

16:13 you became exceedingly beautiful Yahweh’s provision and adornment has allowed the wife to develop into a beautiful queen.

16:14 a name went out for you among the nations The term shem (“name”) can refer to a person’s status and reputation or renown. Jerusalem’s reputation for beauty and splendor inspired the Queen of Sheba to visit Solomon (see 1 Kgs 10:1–7).

majesty that I bestowed on you Yahweh makes clear that He has given Jerusalem her splendor and status, justifying His harsh reaction to their misuse.

16:15–21 The tale now turns from the woman’s rise to royal status to her misuse of that status. She misappropriates all the good things Yahweh has given her and uses them for the benefit of her lovers (symbolizing idols). She uses her fine clothes to make shelters where she meets her lovers, and she refashions her jewelry into images of men. She offers her food as a pleasing aroma to the idols. The mixture of images shifts between sexual and religious, highlighting the difficulty of separating the literal and figurative aspects of the metaphor.

16:15 And you trusted in your beauty She trusted in herself rather than God.

you prostituted on account of your name The Hebrew verb zanah, meaning “to play the whore,” and the related noun taznuth, meaning “fornication” or “whoring,” appear throughout this passage to characterize the idolatrous behavior of Israel.

you poured out your fornication on every one passing by The indiscriminate nature of her infidelity, multiplied as the narrative continues, highlights her insatiable sexual appetite.

16:16 colorful shrines Represents the high places where Israel engaged in idol worship alongside worship of Yahweh. It also carries the double meaning of the colorfully decorated bed of a prostitute (compare Prov 7:16–17; see note on Isa 57:7).

16:17 male images, and you prostituted with them Metaphorically represents idol worship. The symbolism weaves together images of idolatry and sexuality.

16:19 a pleasing odor A specifically cultic phrase. See note on Ezek 20:28.

16:20 your sons and your daughters Refers to the inhabitants of Judah. The comparison to Jerusalem’s “sisters,” Sodom and Samaria, beginning in v. 44 also uses the idiom of the daughters to indicate inhabitants.

you sacrificed them to them to be eaten Possibly an allusion to child sacrifice (see note on 20:26).

16:22 you did not remember the days of your childhood Jerusalem failed to remember Yahweh’s provision for her both in infancy (v. 4) and adolescence (vv. 7–9).

16:24 a mound A dome or elevated platform for ritual prostitution.

16:25 you spread your feet The Hebrew is quite explicit. She offers herself by indecently spreading her legs. The verb pisseq is an intensive form meaning “to split wide open.” The literal Hebrew phrase here reads “you spread your feet wide.”

16:26 the Egyptians Jerusalem’s illicit relationships involved the surrounding major powers: Egyptians, Assyrians, and Babylonians. Judah sought political and military support from Egypt to oppose both the Assyrians (see note on Isa 30:1–7) and the Babylonians (see note on Ezek 17:7).

who were sexually aroused Another of Ezekiel’s sexually charged images that is often toned down in translation. The Hebrew phrase gidle vasar literally means “great of flesh.”

16:27 I stretched out my hand against you An idiom regularly used for divine judgment. See note on 14:9; compare Isa 5:25 and note.

I reduced your portion An allusion to the husband’s responsibility to provide for his wife outlined in Exod 21:10. If a husband took a second wife, the law prevented him from diminishing the portion of his first wife; however, in the case of adultery, he was no longer responsible for the wife’s well-being. Legally, the penalty for adultery was death (see Lev 20:10).

the Philistines Israel’s traditional enemies to the west, on the coastal plain. Even Jerusalem’s idol-worshiping neighbors find her behavior atrocious.

Philistines

16:28 the Assyrians King Ahaz of Judah had appealed to Assyria for assistance against Israel and Syria around 734 bc (see note on Isa 7:1).

16:29 to Chaldea The Bible sometimes uses “Babylon” and “Chaldea” interchangeably. See note on Ezek 16:26.

16:30 actions of a headstrong female prostitute The multiple partners and insatiable appetite for illicit relations mark Jerusalem as nothing but a prostitute.

16:31 at the head of every street Prostitutes tended to frequent visible public places, where the higher foot traffic increased the number of potential customers.

not like a prostitute, as you were scorning your harlot’s wages Cultic and commercial prostitutes accepted payment for their services. However, Jerusalem’s adulterous liaisons gained her nothing and gave away everything.

16:33 you gave your gifts to all of your lovers See note on v. 31. Instead of being paid like a typical prostitute, she paid her lovers and seduced them with bribes.

16:36 your nakedness was revealed The Hebrew idiom used here—galah erwah, meaning “expose nakedness”—is a common euphemism for sexual activity (see Lev 18:6 and note).

16:37–43 The focus shifts from a detailed description of the woman’s infidelity to an explicit account of her public humiliation and punishment. The details of the metaphor should not be pressed at this point, since the literal destruction of Jerusalem by the Babylonians seems to underlie the violent depiction of physical and sexual abuse. Ancient Near Eastern law codes, however, allowed the husband to punish his adulterous wife as he pleased, depending on the circumstances.

16:37 I am gathering all of your lovers She will be punished and humiliated in public view of those with whom she violated her covenant with Yahweh.

16:38 I will judge you with the judgment of women committing adultery and shedding blood Both adultery and murder were capital offenses (see Lev 20:10; Deut 19:11–12).

16:39 they will leave you naked and bare A return to the state in which Yahweh found her (see Ezek 16:7).

16:40 they will cut you to pieces with their swords A description more appropriate for an invasion than capital punishment.

16:41 And they will burn your houses The judgment in vv. 39–41 starts with the woman’s shelter and clothing being removed and shifts to a depiction of the city’s destruction.

16:44 Everyone quoting a proverb Conventional sayings often making a succinct moral point. See note on 18:2.

Like her mother is her daughter Jerusalem’s mother was a Hittite (v. 3). The comparison means that Judahite Jerusalem was just as guilty of idolatry as Canaanite Jerusalem.

16:46 elder sister, she is Samaria Foreshadowing the similar tale of two sisters in ch. 23, the prophet describes Jerusalem and her behavior in light of Samaria, the capital city of Israel, and Sodom, an ancient Canaanite city on the Dead Sea. By this time, both of these cities had long been destroyed. Samaria was destroyed by the Assyrians in 722 bc.

Sodom A proverbial example of divine judgment (Gen 19). The comparison between Jerusalem and Sodom invokes the same imagery as Isa 1:9.

16:47 you behaved more corruptly than they in all of Compare the accusation of 2 Kgs 21:9. Ezekiel has already accused Judah of being more rebellious than the nations (see note on Ezek 5:6).

16:49 she did not sustain the needy Sodom’s great crime is categorized as social injustice, adding a new level of critique to the accusation of idolatry. Social justice is a prominent theme in the prophetic books (see Isa 1:17; Jer 7:6; Zech 7:10).

16:52 bear your disgrace That is, accept the shame of punishment (see note on Ezek 22:4).

16:53 daughters, and even the fortunes of your captivity Yahweh provides hope for restoration with the caveat that Jerusalem will still have to bear the shame of her actions.

16:56 Sodom, your sister, a byword Alluding to Sodom’s reputation as the ultimate example of a wicked city that received Yahweh’s destruction.

16:57 the scorn of See note on 22:4.

16:59–63 The lengthy oracle concludes with a hint at the future restoration of Israel under a new, everlasting covenant.

16:59 who despised the oath Israel broke the covenant. A covenant was ratified with an oath, so breaking the covenant broke the solemn oath, as well.

16:60 I will remember my covenant with you Refers to the covenant Yahweh initiated in v. 8.

an everlasting covenant This future hope is an important part of prophetic oracles of salvation (see 37:26; Isa 55:3 and note; 61:8; Jer 32:40).

16:61 I give them to you as daughters Symbolizes the relative status of Samaria and Sodom as lower than that of Jerusalem.