objective side, where they can be part of the examinees rather than part of the examiners. Many other philosophers agree with this, of course, but none ever did it more thoroughly or originally than these two. Socrates had few books, no schools, and little philosophical tradition before him to work with; Descartes had much, but deliberately doubted it all (or tried to). Thus both relied on the direct experience and thinking of the individual, not the authority and tradition of the community. Third,