prescribes a human response to the gospel in the form of “turning to God from idols” (1 Thess 1:9), “obey[ing] the gospel” (2 Thess 1:8), exhibiting the “obedience of faith” (Rom 1:5); persons need to “work out your salvation with fear and trembling” (Phil 2:12), and Paul knows of a judgment according to works (Rom 2:13–16; 14:12; 2 Cor 5:10). Paul’s gospel is both a gracious gift and a demand for new-covenant loyalty.14 It can be granted that Paul’s critique of Torah as a gateway to righteousness