The Soul in Ancient Israel

West Semitic npš does not always function in the same way as Akkadian napištu. In some cases, it does not appear to be extinguished at death. In a Ugaritic funerary ritual text, the npš is given offerings in connection with the cult of the ancestors (van der Toorn, Family Religon, 167)—in this sense it is like the eṭemmu. In the Hebrew Bible as well, the נֶפֶשׁ (nephesh) can refer to the essence of a human being whether they are alive (חַיָּה נֶפֶשׁ, chayyah nephesh) or dead (מת נֶפֶשׁ, mth nephesh) (Xella, “Death and the Afterlife,” 2,067). In a passage addressing various mourning rites, Lev 19:28 forbids cutting or marking the flesh for the נֶפֶשׁ (nephesh), referring to the dead—usage of the term relating it to the physical body. In Job 14:22, Isa 10:18, and Psa 63:1, נֶפֶשׁ (nephesh) is equated with בָשָׂר (vasar) “flesh” (Bar, I Deal Death and Give Life, 145). However, in some texts, it appears that the נֶפֶשׁ (nephesh) leaves the body at death (1 Kgs 17:21–22; Eccl 12:7). In Leviticus 17:11, it is connected to the blood. In these cases, it resembles the napištu, as the soul that animates the body. Thus, there is some discrepancy in how the word is used in the Hebrew text.

Although there is no cognate in Hebrew for the Akkadian zāqīqu, the term רוּחַ (ruach) appears to fit most closely with this notion. The רוּחַ (ruach), when referring to a part of the human being, refers to the breath of God, the divine wind that He breathed into man (Gen 2:7). In this respect, it might be identical to the חַיָּה נִשְׁמַת (chayyah nishmath, “breath of life”). Psalm 104:29–30 (NRSV) notes, “When you hide your face, they are dismayed; when you take away their breath (רוּחַ, ruach), they die and return to their dust. When you send forth your spirit (רוּחַ, ruach), they are created; and you renew the face of the ground”—echoing the notion of the נֶפֶשׁ (nephesh) or napištu as the “breath-soul.”

The Hebrew word אִטִּים (ittim), found in Isa 19:3, may have some connection to Akkadian eṭemmu. As noted above, נֶפֶשׁ (nephesh) often fits the description of “ghost”—the essence of the individual in the netherworld. In ancient Israel, just as in Mesopotamia, proper burial of a body was extremely important for the individual’s transition to the netherworld (Abusch, “Ghost and God,” 373).