need for circumcision and wholesale adoption of the Torah. Those who, in the course of the controversy, took the alternative view (Gal 2:4, 12–13; Acts 15:1), held that Gentiles could become morally pure only through circumcision (for males) and obedience to the whole Torah—by ceasing to be Gentiles. This issue of what was required of Gentile believers was inevitably closely connected with the issue of close association between Jews and Gentiles. For Peter, the separation, enforced by the Torah,