So what was Paul confronting? According to Acts 15:1–5 (assuming Luke’s accurate depiction of Paul’s opponents), some Jewish Christians from the Pharisees simply saw Christ as an add-on to torah. In contrast, Paul recognised both pre- and post-conversion (but for a very different reason) that Christ and torah are mutual exclusives.11 In Paul’s view, obedience to the torah cannot be pursued as the means of attaining membership in the people of God and, therefore, the grounds upon which God will vindicate