Old Testament Theology and Divination

While divination (sorcery, contacting the dead, spell incantations, etc.) is prohibited in the ot (see Deut 18:9–14), some godly ot characters utilize such practices without punishment from God. The Bible contains several examples that demonstrate how biblical theology can be consistent with this fact.

“Covenant Separateness” and “Realm Distinction”

Much of the law served to remind the Israelites how to live distinctly from their neighboring communities. Two prevalent concepts of the Law—“covenant separateness” and “realm distinction”—elaborate this theme. “Covenant separateness” refers to a spiritual distinction between God’s people and pagan Gentile cultures. This separateness was articulated in various ways by the law. For example, certain ot laws prohibited the mingling of the populations to prevent idolatry. Such laws taught the Israelites that their loyalty and worship was reserved for the God of their fathers.

“Realm distinction” refers to the differentiation of “two realms” of reality—that which is holy, and that which is not (“profane”). Certain laws articulated this distinction, such as those which prevented people with disabilities or lack of bodily “wholeness” from entering sacred spaces (Lev 12:2; 15:16–18; 21:18). In these cases, “uncleanness” was not concerned with morality; rather, the law reinforced the notion of God’s “otherness”—that God is without flaw or blemish. The same can be said for laws that prohibited mixing types of cloth or cooking techniques (Deut 14:21; 22:11). These laws taught the Israelites that God established boundaries which—if obeyed—would maintain spiritual wholeness and holiness.

“Realm distinction” is also the rationale behind laws forbidding humans from transgressing the unseen spiritual realm—the realm in which beings are usually disembodied (i.e., God, angels, demons). While the Bible contains examples in which members of each group were permitted to enter the other realm, humans were forbidden to tap into the “other side” apart from God’s sovereign permission and initiation. In certain respects, this prohibition was established for the safety of humans; the spiritual realm could not be accurately understood, controlled, and processed by humans. Humans within this realm could become vulnerable to malevolent forces they could neither trust nor understand. In other respects, willfully contacting the other side through means of divination without God’s approval reflected humanity’s desire to be like divine beings (compare Gen 3:22)—to have the knowledge and attributes of God and other spiritual entities.

Divinatory Practices in Deuteronomy

Deuteronomy 18:9–14 lists many prohibited divinatory practices:

“Passing his son or his daughter through the fire”: Likely refers to sacrificing a child by fire. It may also refer to a ritual act that did not involve a child’s death. Ultimately, it was an attempt to lure a deity into action.

One “who practices divination” (qosem qesamim): Refers to an attempt to elicit information from a deity or “supernatural” source through “reading” or “interpreting” natural resources or events (e.g., casting lots). This practice was also used by God to direct believers (Lev 16:8; Josh 18:6–10).

One “who tells fortunes” (me'onen): refers to the practice of telling the future.

One “who interprets omens” (menachesh): The meaning of this term depends on the Hebrew word from which it derives. If the term comes from n-ch-sh, a word which is the basis for the noun “snake,” it may refer to snake charming or some other practice related to snakes. If it derives from l-ch-sh, it refers to other types of enchantments.

One “who makes potions out of herbs” (mekasheph): while this term is frequently translated “sorcery,” it likely refers more specifically to one who concocts potions from plants or herbs.

One “who is a spellbinder” (chober chaber): The word ch-b-r refers to the use of charms and spells. It conveys the idea of joining or weaving, which may by extension refer to the practice of wrapping magical knots around people or objects to “bind” them in some way.

One “who consults a non-human spirit; that is, a knowing one” (sho'el 'ob yidde'oni): The phrase sho'el 'ob means “one who asks a disembodied spirit ('ob).” The frequent translation of “medium” is misleading; in Lev 20:27, the word refers to an entity that enters, controls, or is channeled by a man or woman—not the man or woman themselves. The term 'ob (the thing contacted) is often accompanied by the word yidde'oni (“knowing one,” i.e., an entity who has knowledge). The coupling of these terms conveys the idea of someone who channels a spirit, or is possessed by a spirit for the purpose of communicating with the disembodied spiritual realm. Several passages in Leviticus illustrate the connection (Lev 19:31; 20:6, 27). The entity ('ob) of Deut 18:10 is to be distinguished from the next phrase.

One “who inquires of the human dead” (doresh el-hammetim): Refers to necromancy, i.e., contacting the human dead. This wording diverges from the phrase considered above, where non-human entities are contacted. This illustrates that—as in the wider ancient Near Eastern world—the ot distinguishes between ghosts (spirits of human dead) and demonic spirits.

Engaging in the practices outlined in Deut 18:9–14 was a serious offense. Deuteronomy 18:9 describes these practices as “abominable,” and those who do them as “abominations.” In other texts, those who practice these things are described as having “sold themselves to do evil” (2 Kgs 17:17). The punishments for these offenses vary. Those who made contact with a non-human spirit were to be put to death (Lev 20:27). However, hiring a medium was not a capital offense (Lev 27:20), nor is contacting the human dead or any of the other practices in Deut 18 a capital crime. Nevertheless, they were all “abominations” to Yahweh.

Terms in Other Passages

Further terms descriptive of divination in the ot include:

“Astrologer”: Several ot terms describe astrological divinatory practices. In Isa 47:13, the prophet lists “one who gazes at the heavens” and “one who gazes at the stars.” He then mocks the effectiveness of such practices, and describes them in terms of apostasy. However, no harsh penalty is imposed in the ot for the practice. The last term, “astrologer” is Aramaic. It is used in connection with the Babylonian magicians, wise men, and enchanters described in the book of Daniel (Dan 2:27; 4:7; 5:7, 11). The broad job description conveyed by these terms is to “read the signs in the heavens in order to determine and make known that which has been decreed.” Daniel is included in this group due to his training in Babylon and his ability to interpret dreams—a task normally performed by “wise men” in Babylon.

Dream Interpretation: The interpretation of dreams (chalom) or “night visions” (chezyon laylah, mare'oṯ hallaylah) was a widely recognized form of divination. Frequent accounts of the practice appear in the ot and the texts of other ancient cultures. Daniel’s skill in this area led to his elevation as “chief of the magicians” (Dan 5:11). Joseph’s elevation to high office came by the same route (Gen 40–41). There is no penalty in the law for interpreting dreams; God’s use of dreams is presumed as a viable method of communicating information. However, false dream interpretation was a capital crime (Deut 13:1–5).

Getting Away with Divination?

While some prohibited acts were practiced without punishment, others were never practiced; no godly biblical character ever engaged in a practice that was a capital offense (e.g., contacting non-human spirits, giving false dream interpretations, passing children through fire). In passages that describe the “procedural use” of the practice, God initiated the means of information, often as an answer to prayer. Further, the characters often had faith that God would speak to them in response to some crisis, as in the case of Joseph and Daniel.

In the saga of Jacob and Laban, God directed Jacob in a dream to employ “magic” to multiply his herds. Since God was the power behind the divination technique, Jacob gives Him credit (Gen 30:35–40; compare Gen 31:8–12). The books of Genesis and Judges contain several instances of sacred sites (with sacred trees) at which believers obtained divine information (Gen 12:6–7; 35:4; Judg 9:5–6; compare Judg 9:34–37 and Josh 24:24–27).

In these examples, the conduit of the information was the true God or one of God’s spokespersons chosen by Him to speak to His people. All of these individuals had a direct divine encounter with the true God who called them to His service. These people were not punished for using the divinatory techniques because God Himself contacted them and dispensed the revelation through these means. They did not seek to transgress the realm distinction on their own, nor were they seeking to communicate with a lesser divine being of their own choosing. God was the initiator and source of the revelation. Humans—even godly individuals who speak for God—are not authorized to seek the disembodied realm and the knowledge of that realm on their own initiative.

Michael S. Heiser

Further Reading:

Sacred Trees in Israelite Religion

Prophetic Commissioning and the Divine Presence