New Testament Terms for Unseen Divine Beings

The nt uses a wide variety of terms for unseen divine beings in the spiritual realm, both good and evil. Other than indicating that these beings are subordinate to God and inferior to Him in attributes, these terms do not identify the ontological nature of these beings. Rather, they broadly identify beings as non-human and as members of the unseen spiritual world, or they describe degrees of rank and power in the spiritual realm.

The exact hierarchical relationship among these terms is unclear. However, several derive from human conceptions of geographical rule and political power. Additionally, the terms are consistent with ot concepts of cosmic geography, where God consigned the unbelieving nations to the sons of God in an act of divine judgment (Deut 32:8–9; compare Deut 4:19–20; Gen 11:1–9). New Testament writers, particularly Paul, draw on this worldview as well as passages like Dan 10, where nations are under the authority of angelic princes.

Demon

The word “demon” is a transliteration of Greek terms daimon and daimonion, not a translation. Both words are widely used in classical literature to mean “divine being” (i.e., a resident of the unseen divine world), either good or evil. The nt uses both terms to speak of evil spiritual entities. This use is also reflected in the negative use of the related verbs daimonao and daimonizomai (“be under the influence of, or be possessed by, a divine entity”). The negative connotation evident in the nt derives in part from the use of daimon and daimonion for foreign gods (Isa 65:11; Psa 90:6), idols (Psa 96:5) and demons (Deut 32:17; Psa 106:37; Isa 13:21 [“goat demons”]) in the Septuagint. The terms are also used in tandem with “unclean spirits” in the nt (Luke 8:29; 9:42; compare Luke 4:33).

Angel

The word angelos occurs approximately 175 times in the nt and literally means “messenger.” When used of non-human beings, it describes a divine being sent as a messenger from the spiritual world to the human world—that is, the term primarily identifies where the being comes from and why. In this respect, it is akin to the ot term elohim, which speaks broadly to the place of residence of a non-human being (i.e., the non-human spiritual realm). Consequently, elohim and angelos are not ontological terms; rather, they indicate a being’s “place of residence” (where a thing is from). Angelos, however, also denotes function (what a thing does). Yet, discerning the function of a particular angel in the biblical narrative requires consideration of the context in which the term appears.

Lesser Beings

Beyond angelos, the nt describes lesser divine beings with terms of rank and power.

Rulers, Principalities

The English translations of “rulers” and “principalities” most frequently render the Greek terms arche and archon. Both are used in Greek literature to refer to hierarchical human governance over a geographical sphere. As a result, it is not always clear whether nt usage of these words refers to human or divine rulers. Colossians 1:16 seems to refer to divine rulers.

The Septuagint uses the term archon to translate the Hebrew term sar, meaning “prince” (see Dan 10:13, 21; 12:1). In these passages, angelic rulers are in charge of nations. Paul likely uses the term in reference to divine entities in Rom 8:38; 1 Cor 15:24; Eph 1:21; 3:10; 6:12; Col 1:16; 2:10, 15. The instances in 1 Cor 2:6–8 suggest that, although evil entities knew Jesus had come to earth (e.g., Mark 5:7; Luke 8:28), they did not know God’s plan. Had they known, Paul writes, they would not have crucified the Lord. A parallel passage in Eph 3:10 locates these rulers in the spiritual realm (“heavenly places”), lending support for this usage in 1 Corinthians.

Powers

The Greek word dynamis (plural: dynameis) denotes power (i.e., force, capability, potency), though it does not connote any specific rank (Rom 8:38; Eph 1:21). Greek literature uses the term to describe armies. Similarly, the Septuagint uses it to translate “hosts” (e.g., Dan 8:10) and the phrase “Lord of Hosts.”

Lords

The word kuriotē, often translated as “dominions” or “lordships,” occurs in Col 1:16; Eph 1:21. It denotes a sphere of authority and the ability to rule that sphere. Paul uses the similar term kurioi (“lords”) in 1 Cor 8:5 to refer to entities that pagans perceived to have power and to which they rendered sacrifice. He later refers to these beings as demons (1 Cor 10:20). Since Paul traces the flow of Deut 32 in 1 Cor 10, he would therefore have the demons of Deut 32:17 in mind; in Deuteronomy, these entities are described as elohim. For Paul, this terminology was not merely an abstraction; he considered these entities to be real, having genuine powerful authority in certain places of the earth.

Thrones and Authorities

Aside from arche and kuriotes, Col 1:16 also contains two other terms of rank and power: thronos and exousia, usually translated “thrones” and “authorities.” As with kuriotes, these terms refer to some sphere of authority and the ability to rule that sphere. Exousia is the term most frequently used in the nt for the right to use power bestowed by an office. Several nt passages use the term to refer to divine beings (1 Cor 15:24; Eph 1:21; 3:10; 6:12; Col 1:16; 2:10). The spiritual powers are considered “enthroned” over some domain, and they therefore have authority. These terms are conceptually linked to the worldview articulated in Deut 32:8–9.

Glorious Ones

Second Peter 2:10 and Jude 8 both speak of the doxas—literally, the “glorious ones.” More specifically, 2 Pet 2:10 speaks of human blasphemers who rail against the glorious ones while angels, though greater than those blasphemers, would not dare to do so. This wording suggests that there is a distinction in rank between angels and “glorious ones.” In Second Temple Jewish literature, including the Dead Sea Scrolls, references to angels of the council of God of glory may be analogous to the Greek terminology here (1QHa 18:8; 2 Enoch 22:7, 10; Philo, On the Special Laws 1.45).

Elemental Spirits

stoicheia stoicheia the Jewish and Roman officials who were involved in the crucifixion of Christ (see Acts 3:17; 4:5, 8, 26; Rom 3:13)

Stoicheia has four points of meaning in Greek literature that may be reflected in the nt, including basic principles of religious teaching (e.g., Law; Heb 5:12); rudimentary substances of physical world (e.g., earth, wind, fire, water; 2 Pet 3:10, 12); astral deities (ancient people believed some stars were deities or were empowered by deities due to their movement in the heavens); and spiritual beings in a more general sense.

The meanings of the term in several of Paul’s passages are unclear (Gal 4:3, 9; Col 2:8, 20). For example, in Col 2, Paul seems to use the term for spiritual beings, as other terms for spiritual forces (angels, principalities and powers, false gods) appear in the context. Paul’s use of stoicheia in Gal 4 could be in reference to the Law, spiritual beings, or astral deities. Galatians is focused on the problem of Jewish converts wanting to require Gentile believers to obey the Law. In Gal 4, Paul speaks to both Jews and Gentiles, so he could be using the term in different ways with each audience. Galatians 4:1–7 likely addresses Jewish converts (see Gal 4:5, “those who were under the Law”); stoicheia in Gal 4:3 therefore most likely refers to the elements of the Law. But the Gentiles were not under the Law and did not know the true God (Gal 4:9). Therefore Gal 4:8–11 could be seen as addressing Gentile converts.

In this light, and in the context of Gal 4:9–11, stoicheia could be interpreted as astral deities, or perhaps spiritual beings, that were associated with the astrological ideas of “fate.” The belief that the stars determine an individual’s destiny was common in pagan religions during the nt era. This would mean that the “days and months and seasons and years” in Gal 4:11 points to astrological beliefs and practices. Paul is therefore denying the idea that the celestial objects (sun, moon, stars) are deities; these rocks and balls of gas are not actually gods, though the ancients conceived them that way. Paul encourages Gentile converts to not be enslaved again to the idea that these objects control their destiny. Paul does not intend to deny that the unseen world was populated by “gods” (compare 1 Cor 8:4–6; 10:20, which quotes Deut 32:17, where demons are called gods); rather, he is denying that physical celestial objects were gods or had divine influence.

Archangels

The Greek archangelos occurs only two times in the nt (1 Thess 4:16; Jude 9, of Michael). The term speaks of an angel who has authority over other angels. The nt adds no details beyond this basic sense. Second Temple Jewish Literature used the term to differentiate between groups of angels in hierarchy (1 Enoch 61:10; 2 Enoch 19:1–5). The Septuagint uses a different Greek word, archistratēgos, for the commander of Yahweh’s host in Josh 5:13–15, but that term is at times used as a synonym in Second Temple material (e.g. Testament of Abraham rec. long. 1:4 and 14:10; 3 Baruch 11:8).

Michael S. Heiser

Further Reading

Stoicheia DDD

Elements, Elemental Spirits DPL

Principalities and Powers DPL

Angels of the Nations DNTB

Demon DDD

Angel DDD