Introduction to 1 Samuel

First Samuel shows Israel’s transition from a group of tribes to a centralized monarchy. The book begins with the birth of the last judge, Samuel, who also is a prophet (1 Sam 3:20; 7:15–17; compare Judg 2:16–23). During Samuel’s leadership, the Israelites clamor for a king. Samuel cautions against this. Yahweh—noting that it means Israel’s decision to reject Him as their rightful king—grants the request (1 Sam 8). Samuel then anoints Saul as king (1 Sam 9–10). After Saul goes against Yahweh’s ways, Yahweh rejects Saul and chooses David, who is then a youth (1 Sam 15–16). The remainder of the book depicts the difficulties between Saul and David. First Samuel illustrates the tension between God’s ideal will and people’s choices.

Background

First Samuel is set in the 11th century bc, a period marked by regional conflicts such as those between the Philistines and the Israelites (e.g., 1 Sam 17). Egypt no longer had much influence in Canaan—which Israel inhabited—so local city-states and tribal confederations vied for dominance. This atmosphere lies behind 1 Samuel.

The Hebrew Bible presents 1–2 Samuel as a single book called Samuel. (The Septuagint, an ancient Greek translation, split the book into two.) The collective work of 1–2 Samuel—along with Deuteronomy, Joshua, Judges, and 1–2 Kings—presents the history of Israel in light of the covenant (contractual) blessings and curses set forth in Deuteronomy. These writings, including 1–2 Samuel, probably reached their final form in the sixth or fifth century bc through the work of Jewish scribes who compiled and edited earlier sources.

Much of 1–2 Samuel centers around Deuteronomy’s framework: When Israel and its king follow Yahweh, they experience His blessings, but when Yahweh’s commands are opposed, hardship ensues. Saul is measured this way, and David is chosen because of his love for Yahweh (13:14; 15:10–11, 22–25; 16:7).

Structure

The narrative of 1–2 Samuel includes three cycles of leadership stories. First Samuel presents the cycles about Samuel and Saul and introduces David, while 2 Samuel contains the cycle about David’s reign.

The Samuel cycle (1 Sam 1–7) starts with the miraculous birth of Samuel and continues through his time as prophet and last ruling judge of Israel. Samuel’s time as prophet continues into Saul’s reign as king. This introduces a new structure for Israel’s leadership: a king with a consulting prophet, with both reporting to Yahweh. The king is a regent under Yahweh and is supposed to obey Yahweh’s prophet.

The Saul cycle (1 Sam 8–31) can be divided into two parts. The first part (1 Sam 8–15) covers Israel’s request for a king, the selection of Saul, and the beginning of Saul’s reign. Toward the end of this section, Saul disobeys Yahweh; as a consequence, his descendants will not inherit the kingship. In the second part of the cycle (1 Sam 16–31), Samuel anoints young David as king, and conflict develops between David and Saul. The text portrays Saul negatively and David positively. First Samuel ends with Saul’s death, which sets the stage for the David cycle in 2 Samuel.

Outline

• God calls Samuel as judge (1:1–7:17)

• God calls Saul as king (8:1–12:25)

• God rejects Saul as king (13:1–15:35)

• God calls David as king (16:1–31:13)

Themes

The various relationships portrayed in 1 Samuel exemplify the startling differences between Yahweh’s followers and those who ignore Him. Following Yahweh means recognizing His place as ultimate king. The narrative of 1–2 Samuel shows that the power of Israel’s king comes only from Yahweh. Even after Saul takes the throne, he can only rule successfully as long as he respects Yahweh’s authority. But Saul lets fear take control and loses his way (1 Sam 15:24), even though Yahweh appointed him (15:35). The only thing constant is Yahweh—and the failure of the kingship leads even Yahweh to feel remorse (15:10–11; compare ch. 8).

Unlike Saul, young David seems to fear only Yahweh, and Yahweh is with him (18:12). The choice of David from among his older, stronger brothers shows Yahweh’s love of those who love Him. Yahweh looks at the heart and is not swayed by outward appearances (1 Sam 16:7). During all of David’s struggles against Saul, including his time as an outlaw, he respects both Yahweh and Saul, Yahweh’s king (e.g., 1 Sam 24).

First Samuel also brings to the forefront the concept of a messiah—an anointed leader chosen by God to lead His people. Saul fails in this role, while David, for a time, epitomizes the role. David defeats the Amalekites, and Philistine hostilities decline under his leadership. David’s reliance on Yahweh brings favor to Israel. And through David’s line the true and ultimate messiah, Jesus, brings salvation to the world.

Further Reading

The Historical Books

Samuel, First and Second Books of LBD:I