23:1 a malicious witness The integrity of ancient legal proceedings depended entirely on the validity of witness testimony. Since a case required at least two witnesses (Deut 19:15), this statement addresses a scenario where a person with ill intent enlists another to aid them in deceiving the court. See note on Exod 20:16.

23:4 the ox of your enemy The people of Israel are to act with integrity toward one another, regardless of personal difference or social standing. Even an enemy’s belongings are to be treated fairly.

you will certainly bring it back to him Aimed at preventing some of the scenarios sketched in 22:1–6. This law is meant to prevent both property loss and accusations related to property loss. Proverbs 25:21 also promotes well treatment of enemies. General laws on returning lost property are found in Deut 22:1–3.

23:5 You will surely arrange it with him Both the donkey and its pack are to be rescued; one does not have the right to take, sell, or leave the donkey’s load, even as compensation for the good deed of rescuing the animal.

23:8 you will not take a bribe The ot often portrays bribery as being evil—especially in judicial contexts, which suggests that it might have been a widespread problem (e.g., 1 Sam 8:3; Isa 1:23; 33:15; Ezek 22:12; Mic 7:3; compare Deut 10:17). The prohibitions against bribery also could reflect the need for confidence in the legal system.

23:9 an alien The Hebrew word used here, ger (which may be rendered as “resident alien” or “sojourner”), denotes a legal status beyond just being a foreigner. The term ger applies to people living somewhere other than the society or community where they were born.

the feelings of the alien This law prohibiting the oppression of the sojourner points to the rationale of the law: oppression hurts people deeply. The people of Israel are to have empathy for those who find themselves in a foreign land, and to refrain from acting like the Egyptians who oppressed them.

aliens in the land of Egypt The laws of chs. 20–23 often appeal to Israel’s experience of slavery at the hands of the Egyptians as a reason why they should follow the law. This emphasizes the real-world implications of acting unjustly—it degrades the human experience. The memory of slavery serves to orient Israel toward a more just and empathetic society.

Israelite Calendar Table

Israelite Festivals Table

23:11 the seventh The practicality of this rule could be debated, as people (and their animals) who rely on agriculture for food would not be able to survive a year with no yield. This objection is answered explicitly in Lev 25 which says that Yahweh will bless the sixth year with a yield enough for three years (see Lev 25:19–22 and note).

23:12 Six days you will do your work This is a reiteration of the fourth commandment (Exod 20:9; compare 21:1–2). Alongside free people, slaves and animals also benefited from the Sabbath rest.

23:13 other gods The issue here is not whether other gods exist, but which god has Israel’s loyalty. This reflects the polytheistic context out of which ancient Israel emerged. Promoting the worship of one particular god, without denying the existence of others, is called monolatry. This is a step between polytheism and monotheism that is witnessed in various parts of the ot (e.g., 15:11; Psa 82; compare Exod 20:3; 22:20). Israel was to be loyal to Yahweh alone, the creator of all.

it will not be heard in your mouth In antiquity, seasonal agricultural cycles were commonly associated with various gods and fertility myths, some of which were performed or read publically every year. The fertility of the land was to be entirely divorced from foreign gods, as Yahweh alone would provide for His people.

23:15 the Feast of Unleavened Bread This feast is an annual commemoration of the exodus out of Egypt. See note on 13:1–16. The night of the tenth plague, just before Yahweh delivered the people, they ate the Passover meal. This included unleavened bread, since the people were to eat in a hurry and did not have time for the yeast to rise (12:14–20, 13:4).

23:16 the Feast of Harvest Also known as the Feast of Weeks (called shavu'oth in Hebrew). See note on Lev 23:15–22. The Greek term for the feast is Pentecost, meaning “50th”—since it falls 50 days after the Sabbath that occurs during Passover (compare Lev 23:15–16).

the Feast of Harvest Gathering Refers to the final harvest of crops in autumn. The feast is called ingathering (asiph in Hebrew) here and in Exod 34:22, but Deut 16:13 subtly equates gathering (asaph) with the Feast of Booths (also called Tabernacles). See note on Lev 23:33–44. This holiday connects to the exodus from Egypt by reminding the people of their humble beginnings: that they lived in shelters and tents when they were first freed, but Yahweh has allowed them to settle and reap the harvest of the land.

23:17 all your men Presumably adult males. Since travel in the ancient Near East was difficult and often dangerous, women and children were not required to make these pilgrimages. In later rabbinic tradition, women are exempt from fulfilling all time-bound commands, although they may do so if they choose and circumstances allow.

before the Lord Yahweh These feasts presume that the Israelites are residing in the promised land, where the people could both work the soil and present themselves before Yahweh at a central sanctuary.

23:18 food with yeast The Israelites were not to slaughter the Passover lamb until all the participants had removed leaven from their homes (see Exod 12:15–19; Deut 16:2–4).

the fat of my feast Before dawn, the Israelites must burn the fatty portions of the Passover lamb.

23:19 The best of the firstfruits of Relates to the Feast of Harvest (see Exod 23:16) and the dedication of firstfruits to Yahweh (22:29; compare Lev 23:9–14).

You will not boil a young goat in its mother’s milk This rule has no clear link to Israel’s festival calendar. In Canaanite texts, cooking a goat (kid) in its mother’s milk is part of a magic ritual, suggesting that this prohibition relates to pagan practices. The law is repeated in Exod 34:26, then in Deut 14:21 in the context of dietary laws. It continues to serve as the basis for many of the kosher laws developed in later periods, in particular the separation of meat and dairy.

23:20–33

These verses bring an end to this legal section of Exod 21–23 by promising Israel protection and giving them instructions for how to conquer the promised land.

23:20 I am about to send an angel The Hebrew word mal'akh means “messenger,” but also comes to mean “angel” since angels were messengers from God. This mal'akh will lead the people to the promised land. The people of Israel already witnessed this angel at the confrontation with Pharaoh at the Red Sea (see 14:19).

bring you to the place While here and in 33:2 the angel is specified as leading the Israelites into the promised land, elsewhere God says He Himself will lead them (33:14; Deut 4:37). The figure of the Angel of Yahweh is often equated with Yahweh Himself (see note on Exod 3:2).

Old Testament Godhead Language

23:21 transgression The Hebrew word used here, pesha', is used elsewhere to indicate a violation of the covenant (1 Kgs 12:19; 2 Kgs 1:1; 3:5, 7; 8:20, 22). That meaning would fit here, since the giving of God’s law is tied to the covenant relationship between Yahweh and Israel.

my name In ot theology, using the “name” (shem) of God referred to the person of God Himself (e.g., Isa 24:15; 30:27; Prov 18:10; Psa 75:1). The name—the presence, essence, and nature of Yahweh—is in this angel and it is to be treated as if Yahweh himself.

The Name Theology of the Old Testament

23:22 you listen attentively The protection of Yahweh has two characteristics: it is predicated on obedience to a particular way of life, and it means destruction for any who oppose this way of life.

23:24 You will not bow to their gods One of many reiterations of the first commandment (Exod 20:3–6).

you will utterly break their stone pillars Since worship of other gods is forbidden, the Israelites must destroy the sacred sites of the other gods, lest they be tempted. Destroying idols and sacred objects also underscores their powerlessness, especially when it comes to their ability to protect.

you will utterly break their stone pillars Since worship of other gods is forbidden, the Israelites must destroy the religious objects to other gods. See note on Gen 28:18.

23:25 I will remove sickness Healing is an intentional outcome of Yahweh’s blessing over Israel’s food and water, emphasizing the specialness of the land for His chosen people.

23:26 There will be no one suffering miscarriage or infertile Reflects God’s promise to make Abraham’s descendants like the stars of the sky and sand on the seashore (Gen 12:1–3; 15:1–6). This is a particularly powerful, if idealized, statement considering that two of the matriarchs—Sarah and Rachel—were barren.

23:27 I will release my terror before you That is, the Israelites’ reputation as conquerors will precede them (compare Exod 15:16; Josh 2:9). Ezekiel later turns this on its head, when he states that all who pass by Jerusalem after its destruction will revile and taunt (Ezek 5:13–17; 22:4–5).

23:28 hornet The Hebrew term used here, tsir'ah, may refer to a plague. This reference may refer to an event like the plagues against Egypt (see Exod 8:16, 21; 10:3–6) or the “Day of Yahweh” oracles (see Joel 3). The same image appears in Josh 24:12.

23:30 Little by little The Israelites will gain the promised land through a long, progressive series of campaigns and displacements (see Josh 1–13). However, many local, non-Israelite communities will remain in the land through the period of the judges, into the monarchy, and even after exile.

23:31 I will set your boundary The description of the promised land is different in some respects from the description in Gen 15:18, which delineates the Nile and Euphrates Rivers as the boundary, but the overall land parameters are consistent.

the Red Sea The Hebrew term used here here, yam suph, refers in this context (unlike in Exod 13:18) to the Gulf of Aqaba, the easternmost prong of the Red Sea (compare 1 Kgs 9:26; see note on Exod 13:18).

the sea of the Philistines Here the Hebrew text refers to the Mediterranean Sea as the yam pelishtim, meaning “sea of the Philistines” (compare 13:17). The Philistines are the most prominent enemy of Israel in the books of Judges and Samuel, the most famous among them being Goliath (1 Sam 17).

23:32 You will not make a covenant Any covenant made between people in the ancient Near East required the parties involved to recognize the ability of the other person’s god(s) to enforce the stipulations, blessings, and curses of such a binding agreement. In so doing, one placed oneself at the discretion and mercy of those other gods. Israel was forbidden from forming such agreements, perhaps because they were viewed as serving other gods (Exod 23:33)—a violation of the first commandment (20:3).

23:33 lest they cause you to sin against me This is the whole reason for the destruction and conquest Yahweh commands—that the people live with minimal temptation toward undesirable behaviors, practices, and beliefs.