language. Some of the letters used were still not specific to any one sound,68 and the vowel markings had not yet been invented.69 For an oral culture, this type of writing worked more as a reminder to the reader of content that had already been memorized or at least was very familiar. Fixed or formal correlations between speech and writing did not develop until much later, in the 8th century.70 Thus, these scholars express doubt that the Qur’an could have existed in any format – much less a complete