was written to refute “proto-Gnosticism”—early Gnosticism in embryonic stage. For example, several times 1 John says that anyone who denies that Jesus Christ came in the flesh should be considered anathema (cast out). There must have been people among the early Christians denying that Christ came “in the flesh” (real humanity). Second-century Christian writings are full of affirmations of the real humanity of Jesus and castigations of people who deny it. Irenaeus built his whole doctrine of the “work