oppressive regulations, denied access to resources, discriminatory hiring practices, and other social norms that prevent some from enjoying the opportunities of others. Over the past half century, the United States has—at least as a matter of law—virtually eliminated these systemic barriers. However, affirmative action and other measures that were intended to be restorative have come under criticism as having unintended and detrimental consequences.4 But that doesn’t mean we have eliminated systemic